Short question 1

What is the effect of low secondary voltage on distribution system

Transformer secondary voltage can be too high, too low or there may be no voltage. Please note that
transformer voltage is a ratio of the primary voltage. If the primary voltage is too high or too low, the
secondary voltage will also be too high or too low.

This characteristic is the transformer impedance, which determines the voltage drop at

tributable to the transformer when carrying load. ExCessive transtormer impedance can cause low
votage on secondary and service lines as well as on customer equipment. As, iow voftage

results in higher losses. Setting transformer taps on higher settings will improve secondary voltage

short question 2

Draw asingle line diagrame of distribution of distribution system

1. Two steam-electric generators, each at 13.2 kV

2. Two step-up transformers, 13.2/66 kV
3. Sending-end, high-voltage bus at 66 kV
4. One long transmission line at 66 kV
5. Receiving-end bus at 66 kV
6. A second 66 kV transmission line with a center-tap bus
7. Step-down transformer at receiving-end bus, 66/12 kV, supplying four 12 kV
motors in parallel and
8. A step-down transformer, 66/7.2 kV, off the center-tap bus, supplying a 7.2 kV
motor
 ,

Short question 3

which point of dc ring main should be connecting throught interconnector

Ring Main Distributor with Interconnector:

Sometimes a ring distributor has to serve a large area. In such a case, voltage
drops in the various sections of the distributor may become excessive. In order to
reduce voltage drops in various sections, distant points of the distributor are
joined through a conductor called interconnector. Fig.13.38 shows the ring
distributor ABCDEA. The points B and D of the ring distributor are joined through
an interconnector BD. There are several methods for solving such a network.
However, the solution of such a network can be readily obtained by applying
Thevenin’s theorem. The steps of procedure are :
The steps of procedure are :

 Consider the interconnector BD to be disconnected [See Fig. 13.39 (i)] and find the
potential difference between B and D. This gives Thevenin’s equivalent circuit voltage E 0.
 Next, calculate the resistance viewed from points B and D of the network composed
of distribution lines only. This gives Thevenin’s equivalent circuit series resistance R 0.
 If RBD is the resistance of the inter connector BD, then Thevenin’s equivalent circuit
will be as shown in Fig. 13.39(ii).

Therefore, current distribution in each section and the voltage of load points can
be calculated.
Question 4
Question 5.
What is the mechanism of breakdown of an underground cable
There are two ways in which breakdown of cables usually occurs. One way is by
a progressive coring and tracking, which always starts from the core or sheath,
and ultimately bridges the electrodes. Another way is by thermal instability
which occurs due to rapid increase in power factor with the rise in temperature.
A marked difference between the methods of breakdown is that coring, once it
occurs, will continue until the cable breaks down, another the time duration
may be considerable for complete action. In thermal instability, however, no
damage occurs until just before breakdown, so that if the load is reduced before
breakdown the cables will not have suffered any permanent change. A very
common occurrence is for coring to start and then introduce thermal instability
at the centre of coring.

Question 2 apart

11kv underground cable

Prior to the cable being laid, the cable trench must be dug and prepared
properly.This means that the trench must be of adequate size to allow for the
cables and ducting required.Different cables will require different sized cable
trenches – the higher the cable voltage, the bigger the cable and therefore the
bigger the cable trench required.The trench width and depth also depends on the
where the cable trench is being dug. For instance, a cable being laid underneath a
public footway will not be laid as deep as one under arable land that is to be
ploughed.When a trench is to be dug, it should be sufficient to allow the installer to
install the cables and ducting at the correct depth for the cable being used.

It should also allow the cables to be installed within the bending radii specified.The
cable should be installed within the specified pulling dimensions and without
damaging the cable sheaths.When laying a cable into an open trench, there are 8
key components within the typical equipment layout used excluding the trench and
the cable.

 Cable Winch – the cable winch is situated at the end of cable trench and is
designed to be simple and robust. The winch provides smooth and controlled
pulling of the cables through the trench. It is the cable pulling winch that
provides the actual pulling of the cable. There is a number of different cable
winches available dependant on the type of cable being pulled. Winches vary
between telecommunications, power cables and lightweight cabling.
 

 Winch Wire Rope – the winch wire rope is attached to the cable in order for
it to be pulled through.  The wire rope gives extra strength and allows for heavier
cables to be pulled through. In addition, the use of the winch wire prevents any
potential damage being caused to the cable sheath.
 

 Swivel Link – the swivel link provides the connection between the cable

and the winch wire rope. Each swivel link is designed and used to allow the wire
to rotate when being pulled and avoid kinking or twisting. The extra layer of
protection provided by the swivel link means damage to the cable sheath is
reduced even further.
 

 Cable Socks – cable socks or stockings are available in either stainless steel

or Kevlar but are traditionally constructed of high tensile, galvanised steel wire.
Often called cable socks or grips, these are another level of protection between
the cable and the cable winch. Fitted to the end of the cable, they are attached to
the swivel link and avoid direct contact with the cable. All pilot and telephone, LV,
11kV, 20kV, 33kV, 66kV and 132kV cables should be normally pulled in using a
correctly sized cable sock which is securely fixed to the LV-HV cable. More
complex cable pulls may require the use of a cable pulling eye attached directly
to the cable conductors.
Straight Cable Rollers – the straight line rollers are, as the name suggests, for use in the
straight part of the trench. Varying in size and weight, the straight rollers are selected by
the size of the trench they are to be used in. The rollers enable to the cable to be pulled
through without making contact with the base of the trench which would damage the cable
outer sheath

 Corner Rollers – Angled corner rollers are to be used within the trench

where there is a bend in the trench. Typically these incorporate a vertical and
horizontal roller to allow for the pulling of the cable. Providing the same level or
protection as the straight rollers they are both used alongside each other.
 

 Draw Off Roller – the draw off roller is the first piece of equipment the cable
will come into contact with. When the cable is pulled through the open trench,
the draw off roller leads the cable straight from the drum into the trench. The
 cable is then pulled through the trench with the draw roller acting as an initial
guide for the cable.
 

 Cable Drum Trailer – the cable drum trailer is used to transport the cable
drum. In addition the trailer is also used to stabilise the cable drum whilst the
cable is being pulled through the trench.

Primary distribution -B Part

What is Primary Distribution

Primary distribution is the original sale of a new security issue from the issuing
company to investors/shareholders. Proceeds from a primary distribution are
sent directly to the issuing company. This is also sometimes referred to as a
"primary offering."

BREAKING DOWN Primary Distribution

In contrast to a primary distribution, a "secondary distribution" refers to a
registered offering of a large block of an existing security by a holder of that
security. The sale of a large block of existing stock by an officer of the issuing
company is one example of a secondary distribution. Proceeds of a secondary
distribution go to the seller, not the issuing company. A secondary distribution of
stock does not add to the number of shares outstanding.

In some cases, a secondary offering must be registered with the Securities and

Exchange Commission. If the seller of the shares is an affiliate with the company
that has issued the shares and is in a position to influence company policy, a
registration must be filed. This is known as a "registered secondary distribution.

The original sale of a company's securities, in which

the proceeds from the sale are received directly by the company. The
opposite is a secondary distribution, where an
existing shareholder offers a block of shares for sale, and receives the
proceeds of the sale as well.
Primary distribution voltages range from 4 kV to 35 kV phase-to-phase
(2.4 kV to 20 kV phase-to-neutral)[9] Only large consumers are fed
directly from distribution voltages; most utility customers are connected
to a transformer, which reduces the distribution voltage to the low
voltage "utilization voltage", "supply voltage" or "mains voltage" used by
lighting and interior wiring systems.
Distribution networks are divided into two types, radial or network.[10] A
radial system is arranged like a tree where each customer has one source
of supply. A network system has multiple sources of supply operating in
parallel. Spot networks are used for concentrated loads. Radial systems
are commonly used in rural or suburban areas.

Radial systems usually include emergency connections where the system

can be reconfigured in case of problems, such as a fault or planned
maintenance. This can be done by opening and closing switches to
isolate a certain section from the grid.

Long feeders experience voltage drop (power factor distortion)

requiring capacitors or voltage regulators to be installed.

Reconfiguration, by exchanging the functional links between the

elements of the system, represents one of the most important measures
which can improve the operational performance of a distribution system.
The problem of optimization through the reconfiguration of a power
distribution system, in terms of its definition, is a historical single
objective problem with constraints. Since 1975, when Merlin and Back
introduced the idea of distribution system reconfiguration for active
power loss reduction, until nowadays, a lot of researchers have proposed
diverse methods and algorithms to solve the reconfiguration problem as a
single objective problem. Some authors have proposed Pareto optimality
based approaches (including active power losses and reliability indices
as objectives). For this purpose, different artificial intelligence based
methods have been used: microgenetic, branch exchange,particle swarm
optimization and non-dominated sorting genetic algorithm.

define the explain the term feeder , distributor, and service main

feeder

Feeder: The feeders are connected to substation to the area where

power is to be finally distributed to the consumers. The feeders
current always remains constant

In the substance (s), the voltage magnitude is reduced to a utilization level and then the eclectic
power is a distribution to the various area through the conductors which is known as feeders.

A feeder has no tapping on it.

Current through it always remains same.

 While designing a feeder the main consideration is its current carrying capacity

A feeder line is a peripheral route or branch in a network, which connects smaller or more remote
nodes with a route or branch carrying heavier traffic. The term is applicable to any system based on
a hierarchical network.
In telecommunications, a feeder line branches from a main line or trunk line.
In electrical engineering, a feeder line is a type of transmission line. In addition Feeders are the
power lines through which electricity is transmitted in power systems. Feeder transmits power from
Generating station or substation to the distribution points. They are similar to distributors except the
fact that there is no intermediate tapping done and hence the current flow remains same at the
sending as well as the receiving end. In radio engineering, a feeder connects radio equipment to
an antenna, usually open wire (air-insulated wire line) or twin-lead from a shortwave transmitter.
In power engineering, a feeder line is part of an electric distribution network, usually a radial circuit of
intermediate voltage.

Distributors

Distributor: These are the conductors used to transfer power from

distribution centre to the consumers. The tappings are taken for the
supply to the consumers.

The distributor is a conductor which distributes the electrical power in particular area.

It has a number of tapping on me through which the electrical power is actually reached to consumer
premises.

The current flowing through it does not remain same

While designing a distributor the main consideration is a voltage drop and the
variation should be within + 6% of rated voltage.

Distribution transformers are mainly 3 phase pole mounted type. The secondary of the
transformer is connected to distributors. Different consumers are fed electric power by means of
the service mains. These service mains are tapped from different points of distributors. The
distributors can also be re-categorized by distributors and sub-distributors. Distributors are
directly connected to the secondary of distribution transformers whereas sub-distributors are
tapped from distributors.

Service main
Service Mains These are the small cables between distributors and the actual consumer
Premiss
General terms a Service Main is a line on private property or properties that supplies fewer
than three customers. ... Service Mains that supply more than one customer are defined as
jointly owned Service Mains and the responsibility is shared proportionally between the owners.

The interconnection of feeders , distributors and service main show in fig

There is no tapping on feeders. PQ QR, RS and PS are the distributors which are

supplied by the feeders. No consumer 1 directly connected to the feeder. The service

mains are used to supply the consumers from the distributors. Tappings are taken from

the distributors.

Service mains of the consumers may be either connected to the distributors or

sub-distributors depending upon the position and agreement of consumers. In
this discussion of electrical power distribution system, we have already mentioned
about both feeders and distributors. Both feeder and distributor carry the
electrical load, but they have one basic difference.

Question 4
Compare the merits and demerits underground system verses
overhead system
If a single-core-cable sheath is earthed at both ends of the cable, any induced voltage causes a
circulating current around the earth loop, resulting in the generation of heat, which may require
derating of the cable in terms of currentcarrying capacity. The alternative of earthing the cable
sheath at one

end only unearthed end, particularly during fault conditions. For reasons of safety, the sheath
voltages should ideally not be allowed to exceed about 60 V under maximum load conditions.
The following sections identify compromise solutions to these mutually exclusive constraints. A
further point to note is that single-core cables negate the use of armouring consisting of ferrous,
and hence magnetic, materials, since such materials amplify the magnetic flux and hence the
induced voltages and related losses.

The distribution system can be overhead or underground.Undergrounding is

more expensive, since the cost of burying cables at transmission voltages is
several times greater than overhead power lines, and the life-cycle cost of
an underground power cable is two to four times the cost of
an overhead power line.

The overhead lines are mounted onsupports like wooden, steel, RCC, Reinforced
plastics. The underground cables require digging trenches and this may be
complicated by other utility service lines such as water pipes, oil and gas
pipelines, sewer lines. Other complications may arise due to rocks, loose soil
and water along the routes, making them more expensive to install.

Sr.n
Features Overhead system Underground system
o

All the conductors with high All the distribution

voltages are placed overhead. wiring is placed under
1 public safety
Therefore less safer compared to the ground. Therefore
underground system safer.

Initial cost is high due

to the high cost of
Initial cost is less compared to
2 Initial cost trenching, conduits,
underground system
manholes, and other
special equipments.

In this, the manholes,

3 Flexibility
In this, the poles, wires, duct lines, etc are
transformer, etc can be easily placed permanently
shifted to meet the changes in once installed and the
the load conditions. Thus more load expansion can be
flexible met by laying new lines
only.

4 faults Fault chances are comparatively The chances of faults

high (due to lightning’s, here are less since all
 the wiring is
insulation failure ,etc) underground and is
provided with insulation.

All the distribution lines

The appearance of overhead line are kept underground.
5 appearance
is not so good. So it gives better
appearance.

Generally, there are

very less chances of
The conductors are visible and faults in an underground
Fault location
6 are accessible so the fault can be system. But if at all any
and repairs
located and repaired easily. fault occurs, then it
becomes difficult to
locate it and repair.

Current
carrying It has considerably higher current It has comparatively low
7
capacity and capability. current capability.
voltage drop

8 Useful life 25 years. More than 50 years

Due to the chances of faults and

As compared to the
service interruptions in an
overhead system the
Maintenance overhead system due to
9 maintenance cost is
cost wind,ice,lighting as well as from
comparatively less due
traffic hazards , the maintenance
to less chances of faults
cost of overhead system is high

Interference
An overhead system causes In underground system
with
10 electromagnetic interference with there is no such
communication
the telephone lines. interference.
circuits
 11 picture

 
 

Conclusion: –

The underground cables are more expensive to construct and install, however,
they are convenient, less likely to break and mostly used to provide the missing
link where overhead cables cannot be used. The choice of the cable to use is
determined by the particular situation. The overhead cables are widely used due
to their cost and ability to carry more power compared to the underground.

Question 5
find and expressed for the most economically conductor size of single core
cable
Single core cables are made up of a single conductor covered by a PVC insulation.
They are mainly used in power and lighting circuits, both domestic and commercial
applications. They are also used in the internal wiring of appliances suitable for
installation in conduits and trunking.A single core wire is a cylindrical strand of
metal. In single core wire there is only a single core of metal is present, mostly
copper or aluminum.
These wires are available in different thickness and gauges.

• Used for Domestic purpose

Single core wires or cables are widely used Domestic purpose. They are mainly used
in electrical appliances, these wires can take a good load that is why they are more
preferred in domestic uses.

• Can handle high temperature

Single core cables are very high ambient wires; these cables are a good conductor
of electricity as well as heat. These cannot melt or burn easily.
Single core cable circuits require special consideration because of the voltages

which are proportional to the conductor current and frequency, being induced

in the metal sheath and the introduction of circulating sheath currents. Single

Core cables may be solidly bonded (bonded at both ends) and this is the normmal

practice up to 36kV with trefoil configurations. With larger conductor sizes

and higher voltages specially bonded systems are more economic.

Single point bonding over short 500 m lengths is used to keep induced volt-

ages between the cable screen free ends within permissible limits. The sheath

or screen is insulated from ground at one end and often fited with sheath volt-

age limiters. The method is sometimes known as end point earthing. Single

point bonding is also often employed for communications cables to prevent

ground current l0ops.

On route lengths too long to employ end point earthing mid-point earthing

may be used. In this system the cable is earthed at the mid-point of the route

generally at a joint and is insulated from ground and provided with sheath

voltage limiters at each termination. The maximum length of mid-point-

bonded cireuits is about 1 km. A separate earth continuity conductor should

be provided for fault currents that would normally be carried by the sheath for

both single point and mid-point-bonded circuits

cross-bonding or cyclic transposition is also employed to minimize the

effect of induced voltages. In the cross-bonding system the cable route is split

into groups of three drum lengths and all joints are fitted with insulating
flanges. The cables laid in flat formation are normally transposed at each joint

position. At each third joint position, the sheaths are connected together and

grounded. At the other joint positions the sheaths occupying the same position