Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Lean Concrete Road Bases: C e C e C y e e
Lean Concrete Road Bases: C e C e C y e e
Lean Concrete Road Bases: C e C e C y e e
KIRKHAM
D.Sc., Ph .D., M.I.C.E., Head of Construction Methods Secti on, Road Resea rch laboratory, Ministry of Transport,
England
P. J . F. WRIGHT
B.Sc., A.M.I.C.E., formerly: Road Rese arch laboratory, now : Civil Engin eering Research Association, Englan d
Lean concrete which was first used as a base under a bituminous surfacing
about 30 years ago has been increasingly lIsed in the last 20 years, and
is now ail e of the more common base materials on heavily trafficked roads.
Generally the performance of these roads has been satisfactory, the most
common defect being the formation of transverse cracks through th e sur-
facing . The extent to which these cracks occur and th e amount of allY
deformation ha ve been. used to assess the performance of both experi-
mental and non-experimental roads, and the requirements of the current
specification and current designs are discussed in relation .to this information.
Fig. l -Typ ical transve rse crack in bit uminous surfacing over a lean concrete base
vey of roads with lean concrete bases is intensity, thickness of base, type and thick-
shown in Fig. 2. Points joined by straight ness of surfacing and mix proportions and
lines represent sites where two or more crushing strength of the lean concrete, some
inspections have been made at different indications have become apparent and these
times. It can be seen that appreciable crack- are discussed later.
ing generally becomes apparent in three to 4. Longitudinal or random cracking
six years, and thereafter it increases with (Fig. 3) or local crazing of the surfacing
increasing age. Within this general pattern has occurred less frequently than transverse
a considerable diversity exists in the fre- cracking and has generally been associated
quency of cracking on different roads of with poor compaction of the lean concrete
the same age and, although no complete or the use of materials not complying with
correlation has been found between the rate the specification. This type of failure is al-
of cracking and such variables as the traffic most always accompanied by deformation
50
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Numbers Indicate number
ot sIte s where this i s 1 V
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Age at time of ins pe ction (y ea rs J
Fig. 2- Fre qu e nc y of transverse cracking obser ved on roads of various ages
of the pavement surface, especially in the the changes in level of small studs embed-
wheel tracks, and the extent of this defor- ded in the surfacing in rows across the
mation provides a further measure of per- carriageway, the studs being placed at in-
formance. In non-experimental roads the tervals of 1 ft. This technique provides in-
deformation ca n be gauged from a straight for mation of the type shown in Fig. 4,
edge laid transversely on the surface of the which gives the average transverse profile
carriageway, but on experimental roads it aEter six yea rs of two sections with 4 in.
is determined more precisely by observing oE rolled asphalt on 6 in . of lean concrete
4 ~ r v - i--
-
'\ ~v
6
1\ /
0·8
V-V ~
I--
Wheel trocks
neQ~ide
of
tane
that were includ ed in the Alconbury Hill covered by the specification segregation is
expe riment referred to later. liable to lead to honeycombed areas and
5. Studies of the performance of roads 'hun gry' patches on the surface, whereas
with lean concrete bases, using the fre- fin er gradings make compaction more diffi-
quency of cracking and the maximum de- cult and tend to produce a porous base un-
fo rm ation in the average transverse profile less the techniqu es are modified. With fin er
as measures of performance, are at present grading it is also more difficult to produce
in progress. These studies have already a plane surface when the concrete is com-
yielded sufficient indications to enable some pacted with a roller as undulations occur
limits to be imposed on the materials, mix more readily.
proportions and other details, but work is 7. Provid ed th e aggregates meet the
continuing in order to establish such limits requirements referred to above no limita-
with greater certainty. tion is imposed as regards the rock type.
There is some evid ence th at transverse
MI X DESIGN cracking is likely to develop more slowly
M ATER IALS when a limestone aggregate is used than
6. The Ministry of Transport specifica- with a siliceous aggregate because of the
tion requires th at aggregates for lean con- smaller movements resulting fro m the lower
crete should comply with the British Stan- thermal expa nsion of concrete made with
dard for concrete aggregates, B.S. 882, and limestone, but thi s effect is insuffici ent to
that the grad in gs should fall within the justify the exclusion of other aggregates .
limits given in TABLE I. T hese limits are
considered satisfactory if th e gradi ng of the PRO PO RT IONS
sa nd fraction , i.e. the material smaller th an 8. The water content of lean co ncrete
3/ 16 in., falls within zone 2 or zone 3 of is not normally specified but sin ce good
B.S. 882, i.e. if the proportion passing compaction of the lean concrete is essen-
a No. 25 sieve lies within the range tial , it must be such as to enable this con-
35 to 79 per cent. If the sand is coarser dition to be ac hieved by means of the plant
or finer than this , trial mixes are necessa ry ava ilable for the purpose. T he desirable
and a hi gher proportion of fine aggregate water content is generally the maximum
where thi s has a coarse grading and a lower amount which can be used without free
proportion where it has a fine grading is mois ture appearing on the surface of the
required. With coarser gradings th an those lean concrete after compaction, or material
adhering to the roller where a roller is used
TABLE I fo r compaction. There is a general ten-
A G G REGATES AN D LI M ITS OF GRADING S dency on the p art of contractors to use the
materi al too dry, since a very dry mix
Per Cent by Weight Passing.
S.S. Test gives less trouble in the fo rm of sticking
Sieve
l V, in .
in the mixer drum and lorries and sticking
no minal % in . nominal
ma x. size ma x. size to the roller, and it is easier to obtain an
even surface free from waves. The essential
3 in . 100 requirement, however, is to achieve com-
l V, in . 95 - 100 100
',4 in . 50 - 80 80 - 100
paction throughout the depth of the base
3/ 16 in. 30 - 40 35 - 45 and this generally requires a water content
No . 25 8 - 30 10 - 35 ranging from 5 1h per cent by wei ght of
No . 100 0 -6 0 -6
the dry materi als in the case of a well
graded rounded gravel and natural sand to strength corresponds to an average of 2,000
8 per cent with an angular material or with p.s.i . at 28 days but for specification pur-
a high proportion of very fine material. poses it is more satisfactory to specify a
minimum strength th an an average strength.
9. The cement is ordinary Portland
If, however, a minimum strength alone is
cement and the quantity used is normally
stated difficulties are likely to arise when
governed by strength requirements. The
an individual result falls just below this fig-
cement! aggregate ratio should not be less
ure. Such a fai lure to meet the specification
than 1 :20 or difficulty may be experienced
does not usually justify the removal of hard-
in achieving proper distribution of the
ened material , but to accept materi al of
cement. Similarly it shou ld not normally
doubtful quality brings the specification in-
be higher th an 1: 15 since exoessively
to disrepute and leads the way to accepting
strong mixes may result in severe transverse
further material of lower strength than is
cracking.
specified. For this reason there is an in-
CRUSHING STRENGTH
creasing tendency to write specifications in
such a manner that some corrective action
10. A wide range of strengths has been may be taken before large quantities of low-
used and there is still some uncertainty as strength material are laid, and the current
to the most advantageous strength to adopt. Ministry of Transport specification aims to
In an experimental road at Whitchurch, achieve this object. With this aim in view
Glamorgan, laid in 1959, four mixes were trial mixes are required before work on the
used giving average 28-day crushing site is started and trial areas are required
strengths ranging from 650 to 3,450 p.s.i. as a preliminary to the main work. Also,
with a gritstone aggregate; two of the more frequent testing is required at the be-
mixes were repeated with a limestone aggre- ginning of the work than later on. These
gate but this experiment has not yet yielded req uirements help to ensure that material
conclusive evidence. More transverse of the required characteristics will generally
cracking has appeared on the sections with be produced, but there may still be occas-
the stronger bases but few of the cracks ions when the strength falls below the speci-
have developed to form serious defects. fied figure as a result of unexpected changes
There has been little deformation of the in the materials or faulty proportioning, and
surface so far but the deformations which provision mu st be made for these occur-
have occurred have tended to be greater in rences.
the weaker bases. As the weaker bases may
be expected to deform more rapidly in due 11 . The present specification requires
course, it cannot yet be stated which will th at three pairs of test specimens be mad e
have the longer life. Similarly an experi- for each 1,000 sq.yd or part thereof in
mental road at Wheatley, near Oxford, laid each day's work, one of each pair being
in 1963 with lean concretes having crush- tested at 7 days and one at 28 days. Pro-
ing strengths ranging from 550 to 2 ,200 vided th e results are satisfactory after the
p.s.i. , has not yet produced any useful evi- first thirty 7-day tests have been carried
dence on this point. On the few sites where out, the frequency of testing may be re-
serious failure of lean concrete bases has duced to three pairs for each 2,000 sq. yd
occurred, however, the strength of the lean of base. The results of crushing tests are
concrete has been low and for this reason considered as successive groups of three
mixes of low crushing strength are not re- and the essential requirement is that not
commended. At present the favoured more than one average of three in any five
consecu ti ve averages shall fall below 1,400 cubes are cured in the same way as for
p.s.i. at 28 days. F urth er requirements on normal concrete.
the results of which remedial ac tion is taken
are : CONSTRUCTION TECHNIQUES
(a) if more than one average in five con- 12. The mixing of lean concrete for road
secutive averages falls below 1,000 bases is carried out in ordinary concrete
p.s.i. at 7 days, the cement content is mixers. For machine-laid work an output
increased and the frequency of testing of at least 40 cu.yd/ hour is necessary and
is increased to the initial rate until thi s is frequently provided by one or more
such tim e as th e 28-day results are batch mixers having a total mixmg capa-
fo und to be satisfactory, and city of at least 2 cu. yd. Sometinles con-
(b) if the average of five consecutive tinuous mixers are used with constant
groups of three test specimens gives a weight feeders and these are capable of
strength Jess than 1,600 p.s.i. at 28 Yielding much greater outputs. Most fre-
days or if the average range of five quently the lean concrete is mixed on the
consecutive gro ups is greater th an 50 construction site at a central batching plant,
per cent of the average, the materials, but ready-mixed concrete and truck mixers
mix proportions, plant or methods have also been used.
must be changed. SPREADING
The test specimens normally used for this 13. The lean concrete is normally trans-
purpose are 6 in. cubes which are com- ported in lorries, either end-tipping or side-
pacted to refusa l in three layers by means ti pping depending on the type of spreader
of an electric or pneumatic hammer. The used. Most frequently bituminous type
pavers have been used for spreading the the bituminous pavers (Fig. 6). These
lean concrete (Fig. 5) and these are gener- machine s have the advantage that better
ally satisfactory although in some cases surface levels can be obtained and the full
slight modifications are necessary to enable width of a carriageway can be laid without
the machines to lay thicker layers than they a longitudinal joint. Their use also avoids
were designed to lay. Also, when using damage to the sub-base or subgrade by the
these machin es, considerable care is re- lorries feeding a bituminous type paver but
quired to achieve the recommended surface requires that there is provision for feeding
tolerance of ± lh in. from true level. The from th e side of the carriageway. In some
material may be spread between forms or cases thi s has been achieved by feeding
kerbs or between concrete edge beams from a h ard shoulder, using side-tipping lor-
formed in situ. Alternatively the lean con- ries, but an attractive alternative on dual
crete may be spread without any forms , pro- carriageway work is to feed the spreader
vided it is extended about 1 ft beyond each by means of a portable conveyor spa nning
side of the finished width of the carriage- the central reservation, using end-tipping
way. With this practice, however, it is more lorries on the opposite carriageway. Bull-
difficult to obtain the correct levels. Some- dozers and blade graders have also been
times hopper spreaders, (such as are used used for spreading lean concrete but good
for concrete carriageways) are used for levels are less easily obtained with these
spreading lean concrete and these can and th eir use is not generally recommended.
handle greater quantities of material than Hand-spreading is common on small jobs.
m the moisture content as a proportion of bond between old and new work and to
the weight of aggregate and cement, and d obtain good compaction close to the joint.
the density of the aggregate. This density, At the end of a day's work the lean con-
d, of the aggregate is the ratio of the weight crete shou ld be compacted to a temporary
of a dried samp le to the absolute volume vertical stop end and the exposed face
of solid material present, i.e. C j (C-B) hacked befo re laying further lean concrete.
where C is the weight of a dry sample and The hacked face is then treated with a 1: 1
B is the weight of the sample saturated and cement sand grout before placing further
weighed under water. If two aggregates are material. This does not necessaril y produce
used separately such as coarse and fin e a permanent bond with the previous con-
aggregate, the term a j d in the formula crete but helps the new material to accom-
above is replaced by modate itself to th e irregular surface and
results in improved interlock between the
~ + a2 old and new work. An alternative method
dl d2 in which the lean concrete is finished off
where a 1 and a:! are the proportions of the in the form of a ramp and cut b ack to a
two aggregates in the mix in terms of parts vertical face before proceeding is less satis-
by weight of cement, and d 1 and d 2 are factory because of the difficulty of produc-
their respective densities. ing a vertical face . In practice an inclined
joint is almost always obtained and this
JOINTS should not be permitted either during a
] 9. Expansion joi nts are not normallv day's work or at the end of a day as the
included in lean concrete bases and at C0l1- weak plane facilitates the occurrence of a
struction joints between successive days' compression failure of the type shown in
work an effort should be made to obtain Fig. 7 and 8. Where such compression
fai lures do occur they can be repaired by fo ur materials, bases of 3, 6, and 9 in.
removing the damaged materia l and replac- thickness were laid with a 4 in. rolled as-
in g it with a mix of sim ilar strength but phalt surfacing (except that the 9 in. rolled
more workable in order to faci litate com- asph alt base was o mitted ) . The 6 in. thick
paction in a confined area . bases were repeated with 11/2, 23,4, and 4
in . roll ed asphalt surfacings (except that
PAVEMENT DESIGN the section with a 4 in. asphalt surfacing
20. In designing th e thickness of a lean on a 6 in. asph alt base was not repeated)
concrete base neither the Californi a Bear- and one section of 6 in . base with each
ing Ratio method for flexible construction material except rolled asphalt was laid with
nor the empirical meth od used for concrete a 4 in. bitumen macadam surface. The de-
carriageways is strictly appli cable but no formation of the surface of the carriageway
separate method has been developed for has been measured periodically and the re-
lean concrete. Most frequently , however, lative performance may be examined in
lean concrete is considered as an altern ative terms of th e maximum deform ation which
to other forms of gr anul ar base and in a has occurred in the nearside wheel track .
full-scale road experiment (R ef. 2) con- The deformations observed after six years
stru cted at Alconbury Hill in 1957, lean of traffic are shown di agrammatically in
concrete bases made with a gravel aggre- Fig. 9. A number of th e secti ons , includ-
gate and a natural sand were compared ing the 6 in . thick lean concrete bases with
with correspondin g sections laid with 1 Y2 and 2 ~ in. asphalt surfacings, have
cem ent-stabilized sand , pre-mi xed water- needed extensive repa ir and the deforma-
boun d macadam (,wet-mix') made with tions were greater than 11h in. and are not
slag and rolled asphalt. Using each of the shown .
Base
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Soctians failod and reconstructod
Asphalt
21 . In the group of sections in which th ese the sand cement fai led first. In con-
the thickness of base was varied, the 3 in. trast the rolled asphalt bases are both still
and 6 in. b ases of sand cement and water- in good condition. Between these extremes
bound macadam have both failed, and of lie th e lean concrete bases.
22. In the group of sections in which thicker bases and that the proportion of
the surfacing was varied, the asphalt bases roads containing such defects increases as
again gave the best performance and the the combined thickness of the base and sur-
sand-cement the poorest. Between these lie faci ng is reduced . These indications need
the lean concrete and the water-bound mac- further confirmation however, and until ad-
adam. The lean concrete bases with sur- ditional information is available it seems
facings 11/ 2 in. and 2* in. thick have reasonab le to use similar designs for roads
failed and it would thus seem inadvisable with lean concrete bases as for water-bound
to use thin surfacings on lean concrete macadam , although waterbound macadam
bases. The 4 in. bitumen macadam surfac- bases require the use of a crushed rock or
ing, however, has performed almost as well crushed slag and are not permitted on
as the adjacent 4 in . asphalt surfacing and motorways.
this suggests that the need for a substantial 24. A seri es of charts has therefore been
surfacing is not so much because of its load prepared giving the recommended thick-
spread ing as for some other property, prob- nesses of surfacing and base for different
ably the thermal insulation which it pro- traffic intensities, and these are published
vides. With other base materials, which in Road Note No. 29 (Ref. 3). The sur-
benefit more from a surfacing with good facing and base thicknesses are summarized
load-spreading properties, the bitumen- in TABLE II. The total thickness of con-
macadam surfacing has a much poorer per- struction and hence the thickness of sub-
formance than the asph alt. base are determined from the CBR value of
23 . It may be deduced from these re- the subgrade and the traffic intensity with
sults that lean concrete sho uld not be used the add iti onal proviso that where the sub-
in thin layers (i.e. less than 6 in. thick) or grade is a material likely to be susceptible
with thin surfacings (i.e. less than 4 in. to frost-heave, the total thickness of con-
thick) , but that the surfacing need not be struction should be at least 18 in.
of a ph alt throughout (though a wearing- 25. Although the thicknesses recom-
course of dense asphalt is recommended in mended in Road Note 29 for lean concrete
order to minimize the ingress of water). bases and surfacing are the same as when
The conclusions concerning thickness are water-bound macadam is used, the evid ence
supported by evidence from surveys of non - above shows that the behaviour of a lean
experimental roads which have shown that concrete base is different. Thus the occur-
defects other than transverse cracking occur rence of transverse cracks in lean concrete
in a hi gher proportion of roads with 6 in. bases suggests that shrinkage or thermal
thick lean concrete bases than in roads with stresses influence the performance in a way
that does not arise with bases not contain-
TABLE II in g cement as a binder, and it has already
RECOMMENDED SURFACING AND BASE THICKNESSES
been suggested that thc advantage of a
thick surfacing may be due partly to the
Traffic Intensity Thicknesses of Thickness increased thermal insulation and not only
Commercial Vehicles Surfacing of Base to the increased stiffness of the pavement.
per Day (i n.) (i n.)
In any case, theoretical considerations in-
Up to 450 2 6
dicate that because of the relatively high
450 - 1,500 3 B elastic modulus of lean concrete compared
1,500 - 4,500 -4 8 with other base materials, the surfacing will
More tha n 4,500 4 10
contribute less to the strength of a pave-
ment with a lean concrete base than it does the upper Jayer of Jean concrete, It IS now
to the strength of a pavement with a weaker common practice to use, in place of a 10
base material. This difference will be more in. thick lean concrete base, a composite
pronounced if the base thickness is increased base consisting of 7 in. of lean concrete
or if the elastic modulus of the lean con- and 3 in. of bituminous base material.
crete is raised. Under these conditions it Calcu lations indicate that the change will
seems likely that most of the strength of increase sli ghtly the tensile stress at the
the pavement would lie in the lean con- bottom of the lean concrete caused by traf-
crete base and, if in fact the base served fic but the additional thickness of overlying
in much the same manner as a reinforced bituminous material will reduce the tem-
concrete carriageway, a reduction could perature gradient in the lean concrete and
probably be made in the large thicknesses the stresses resulting from this. This change
of sub-base required on poor soils. This has the added advantage that the smaller
possibility, however, need s investigation. thickness of lean concrete now required can
be compacted in one layer and may there-
26. On roads carrying very heavy traf-
fore be almost as strong as two 5 in. layers
fic, where a 10 in. thick base is used , this
acting independently.
has generally been compacted in two hyers
of 5 in. each, because it h as not been cer- 27. A possible alternative method of re-
tain that satisfactory compaction in a 10 ducing the transverse cracking in roads with
in . layer can be assured with the methods lean concrete bases is the inclusion of steel
used at present. A good bond has not gen- reinforcement in the concrete. This has
erally been obtained between the two lay- been done experimentally in a housing
ers which may therefore have acted inde- estate road in Crawley ew Town with en-
pendently, and in one notable case the couraging resu lts. On this road, which was
failure has occurred in the upper layer of laid by hand , the spacing of the cracks is
lean concrete, which is subjected to greater influenced by the relatively close spacing of
stresses th an the lower layer. In view of construction joints in the base. Cracks have
this , and in order to reduce the stresses in occurred over all the construction joints
o ./'
./
o
G E xpandQd ml2ta l
./' re inforce ment ( X I
./'
./
o ./'
but additional cracks have occurred be- investigatio n before it can be generally re-
tween construction joints in most sections commend ed.
and the equivalent numbers of full-width
cracks between successive joints are shown
CONCLUSIONS
in Fig. lO in relation to the distance be-
tween the joints. This diagram shows th at 28. Bases using lean concrete made with
fewer cracks occurred in the reinforced sec- natural gravel aggregate are thus accepted
tions than in those without reinforcement as giving at least similar performance to
and also that fewer cracks occurred with bases of water-bou nd m acadam made with
expand ed metal reinforcement than with crushed rock . To obtai n satisfactory per-
welded mesh. Two weights of welded mesh formance the base must be thoro ughly com-
reinforcement were used, 2.72 and 5.67 pacted and the average strength of 6 in.
p.s.y. (the weight of the exp anded metal cubes of the lean concrete should be about
was 5.10 p.s. y.) but this difference does 2,000 p.s.i. at 28 days; stronger materials
not appear to have affected the frequ ency may give an unacceptable amount of crack-
of cracking. Also, two thicknesses of base ing while weaker materi als may give an un-
were used, 10 in . and 12 in. , but this dif- acceptable amount of deformation under
ference has not so far influ enced the rate traffic. - In order to improve the perform-
of cracking. The road has not, however, ance of this type of base, methods are bein g
been subjected to heavy traffic and the use sought fo r reducin g the amount of trans-
of reinforcement therefore requires further verse cracking.
REFERENCES
1. Ministry of Transport, Specification for road and bridge works, H .M.S.O .
3rd edition (1963) .
2. Croney, D. and Loe, J. A. , Full-scale pavement design experiment on A.I
at Alconbury Hill, Huntingdonshire, Proc. I.e.E., 30, 225 (1965).
3. Ministry of Transport, A guide to the structural design of flexible and rigid
pavements for new roads, R.R.L. and Highw. E ngng Div., Rd Note No. 29,
H .M .S.O ., 2n d edition (1965) .
DISCUSSIONS
fully rigid pavement in accordance with Westergaard's theory, the resultant thick-
ness will make it uneconomical. This type of design is not recommended by the
authors.
31. They state in their conclusions that this pavement base will give at least
similar performance to bases of waterbound macadam made with crushed rock.
It can be implied, therefore, that this type of pavement cannot be used economic-
ally where crushed rock is available at a reasonable price and should be used
where natural gravels only are available.
32. While the writer was associated with the Commonwealth Department of
Works, he was often confronted with the problem of providing suitable materials
for high class aerodrome pavements in such areas. It was found by experimenting
and proof-rolling of experimental areas that relatively inferior natural gravels
could be brought to a satisfactory standard by th e addition of small quantities of
ce~nt. Details of this type of work base have been published elsewhere (Ref. 4).
33. In order that such a base should behave as a flexible and not as a rigid
pavement and also to minimize the amount of reflection cracking through the
bituminous surface course, the amount of added cement is kept to the minimum
(2 to 3 per cent) and a 7-day unconfined compressive strength of 150 p.s.i. was
aimed rather as a maximum and not a minimum.
34. It is quite possible that bases of this type, some of which have given satis-
factory service under heavy loads for over ten years, may behave in a different
manner under the prevailing climatic conditions in the U.K.
35. In order to compare relative costs of different types of pavements, the order
of cost per square yard for three alternatives has been calculated.
(a) 4 in. bituminous concrete on an 8 in. lean concrete base as recommended by
the authors for case 3 in TABLE II of the paper (1 ,500 to 4,500 commercial
vehicles per day) .
( b) 7 in. unreinforced high quality concrete pavement as recommended in
Ref. 5 (from which the prices have also been adopted).
(c) 2 in. of bituminous concrete over an 8 in. modified gravel base. This reduced
bituminous concrete thickness is based on local practice over flexible bases,
but in accordance with authors' statemen ts is not acceptable for lean con-
crete; the reduced total thickness is also based on th e authors' statement in
para. 25 of the paper.
It may be noted that there is also a granular sub-base required in each case but
for the purpose of comparative estimates this has been neglected. It may be noted
that in the case of weak sub-grades the thickness of this layer need be less in case
(b) than for (a) and (c).
36. The comparative order of cost per square yard is as follows:
(a) authors' recommendation
4 in. bituminous concrete at $0.75 / in. $3.00
8 in. lean concrete base at $11.00/ cu. yd 2.45
$3.50
lean concrete base at an early stage in order to give some temperature insulation
at this time. Since temperature insulation is considered to be an important factor
on the most heavily trafficked roads, a greater thickness of bituminous material
is now being used with a lesser thickness of lean concrete : 7 in . of bituminous
material on 7 in. of lean concrete is one of the current specifications for motor-
ways in Great Britain.
44. Generally under aU but the heaviest traffic, althougb fine cracks have
appeared through the surfacing, there has not been rapid deterioration of the
material over the cracks. However, on very heavily trafficked roads, where a
high strength gravel lean concrete (28-day compressive strength about 3,000
p.s.i.) was used, and wide cracks formed at infrequent intervals, there has been
faultin g and pumping at some of these cracks many of which occurred at con-
struction joints. However, the frequency of cracking is related to the type of
aggregate, and lean concrete containi ng limestone aggregate of equal strength has
not shown these defects. It seems desirable therefore to relate the performance
of lean concrete bases to the tensile strength and elastic modulus rather than to
the compressive strength, and research into these properties of the material is in
hand .
REFERENCES
4. Williams and Purdam , Modification of natural gravels and soils by the addi-
tion of small amounts of cement, Construct. Rev. (January, 1963) .
5. Simon, L. L. , Reduction in the cost of concrete pavements through quality
control, Proc. 2nd Conf. , A.R.R.B., 2: 2 (1964).