UNIT 1.WOULDN'T IT BE NICE IF WE LIVED IN A WORLD OF NON-VIOLENCE?

WAR IS NOT THE ANSWER

The word “war” means a state of open and usually declared armed conflict between political entities
such as sovereign states or between rival political or social factions within the same state. The
Prussian military analyst Carl Von Clausewitz, in his book On War, calls it “continuation of politics
carried on by other means.” War is waged by political entities, nations or, earlier, city states in order
to resolve political or territorial disputes and are carried out on the battlefield by armies comprised of
soldiers of the contending nations or by mercenaries paid by a government to wage battle.

Throughout history, individuals, states, or political factions have gained sovereignty over regions
through the use of war. The history of one of the earliest civilizations in the world - Mesopotamia - is
a chronicle of nearly constant strife.

War grows naturally out of the tribe mentality. A tribe is a society tracing its origin back to a single
ancestor, who may be a real person, a mythical hero, or even a god: they usually view outsiders as
dangerous and conflict against them as normal. The tribe mentality results in a dichotomy of an “us”
vs. a “them” and engenders a latent fear of the “other” whose culture is at odds with, or at least
different from, one's own. This fear, coupled with a desire to expand, or protect, necessary resources,
often results in war. The possession of permanent territories to defend or conquer brought the need
for large-scale battle in which the losing army would be destroyed, the better to secure the disputed
territory.

War has been an important factor in creating states and empires throughout history and, equally so,
in destroying them. Major advances in science, technology, and engineering have been brought about
through necessity during times of war. The increasing development of military tactics and
geographical obstacles necessitated a corps of engineers as a regular part of any army. The armies of
Alexander the Great and of Rome are well known for their use of engineers in warfare.

With advancements in technology, war has increasingly wreaked chaos and destruction upon the
lives and cities of combatants and non-combatants and, true to the origins of the name, has sown
confusion throughout time.

There is no doubt that war is an evil one. It is the greatest catastrophe that can befall human beings.
It brings death and destruction, merciless slaughter and butchery, disease and starvation, poverty and
ruin. One has only to think of the havoc that was wrought in various countries not many years ago,
in order to estimate the destructive effects of war. A particularly disturbing side of modern wars is
that they tend to become global so that they may engulf the entire world. There are, doubtless,
people who consider war as something grand and heroic and regard it as something that bring out the
best man. But this does not in any way alter the fact that war is a terrible dreadful calamity and this is
especially true of an atomic war.

War is an evil, inescapable evil. A glance at the past history of the world will show war has been a
recurrent phenomenon in the history of nations. No period in world history has been free from the
devastating effects of war. We have had wars of all types - wars lasting for a year or so and a war
lasting for hundred years. In view of this it seems futile to talk of permanent, everlasting peace or to
make plans of the establishment of eternal peace. We have had advocates of non-violence and the
theory of the brotherhood of mankind. But in spite of preachers of love and non- violence, weapons
have always been used, military force has always been employed. Clashes of arms have always
occurred. War has indeed, been such a marked feature of every age and period. This has come to be
regarded as part of the normal life of nations.

Poet and prophets have dreamt of a millennium - an utopia in which war will not exist and eternal
peace will reign on earth, but these dreams have not been fulfilled. After the great war of 1914-18
some thought that there would be no war for a long time to come and the institution called the
League of Nations was founded as a safeguard agent against the outbreak of war. The occurrence the
Second World War however, conclusively proved that to think of an unbroken peace’s to be
unrealistic and that no institution or assembly can ever ensure the presence of peace.

The fact is that, fighting is a natural instinct in peace. It is, indeed, too much to exact so many nations
to live in a state of eternal peace. Besides, there will always be wide differences of option between
various nations, different angle of looking at matters that have an international importance, radical
difference in policy and ideology and they cannot be settled by mere discussion so that resort to war
becomes very necessary in these cases.

It also appears that if peace were to continue for a long period, people would become sick of the
monotony of peace and seek war for change. Man is a highly dynamic creature and it seems that he
cannot remain contented merely with works of peace - cultivations of arts, development of modern
comforts, extension of knowledge etc. He wants something thrilling and full of excitement and he
fights in order to get an outlet for his accumulated energy. Some think that war has its good side - it
spurs men to heroism and self- sacrifice. It is an incentive to scientific research and development.
War is obviously an escape form the lethargy of peace.

Wars break out for various reasons. There are wars between countries or nations and within the
nation. The latter is generally known as a civil war and can occur as a result of differences based on
race, religion, socio-economic dissatisfaction among others. Whether wars are waged between
countries (interstate) or inside the country between different sections of the communities, the effects
are very damaging.
According to experts, the main reasons or factors that contribute to wars are human greed for wealth
and intolerance towards the other. The effects of war are both physical and psychological. Human
societies are deeply affected by wars as residential areas, public infrastructure, hospitals and the very
basis of human existence are destroyed. The Japanese only surrendered when the unconventional
weapons or better known as nuclear weapons were used on Hiroshima and Nagasaki which took
thousands of lives and exposed to radiation thousands of people. Thankfully, most warring nations
still use conventional weapons which do not inflict that kind of damage as nuclear weapons.

Wars bring untold miseries as well as political and economic instability. People's lives and daily
existence come under threat. It would be difficult to find jobs or live our normal day-to-day
existence. Populations are displaced and have to constantly move about for security.

Thus, humans must avoid wars at all cost. The only way we can protect our lives and ensure stability
in our country is to practice tolerance and respect for each otter. Or we too would become extinct
like the dinosaurs!

Flipping through the channels on TV, we are most likely to run over the news of a war going
somewhere in the world. We have got so used to the image of people being massacred, murdered, and
killed in front of our eyes that we see these events without the slightest remorse. Children are
growing up with the fact that the best way to resolve a problem is to simply go to war. War and
violence are making our society crumbled.

After a governmental dispute, a change in ideas, or simple hatred towards nations, a war is engaged. It
starts off by sending innocent lives out to war, most of them not knowing that they are going to
sacrifice themselves for the cause of their government. Hundreds if not thousands of innocent people
would die each day due to the war. Sometimes life seems to be the cycle of never ending violence.
Wouldn't it be nice if we lived in a world of non-violence?

Some people assert that wars are necessary for security in the world. Some people claim that wars are
important to get their social freedom. It may be asserted that wars may be necessary for economic
benefits. Some people claim that wars can be very important opportunity to get economic benefits
such as resources and geopolitical position of countries. However, wars trigger economic depression.

It may be claimed that wars can be necessary for political gains, but wars create health problems.
Some people claim that causes about religion may lead governments to involve in wars. However, no
religion wants people to die. Finally, some claim that wars are necessary to improve technology with
competition, but competition becomes over humanity. Some claim that war speeds up technology. It
is also asserted that wars result in important developments because people want to win any war, so
they must improve their science. However, wars are very harmful for science and technology because
they destroy them at the same time.
In conclusion, wars are not necessary because they result in loss of confidence, economic depression,
health problems and aggressive competition. “Dead or alive” militarism has the advantage of being
simple, but it has the notable downside of making the world a more dangerous place.

Let’s to take a deeper look at the direction we choose in this time of global conflict, endless wars and
political abuse around the world. We can all work to create a culture of peace and challenge the
values that dehumanize and destroy life. We rely too much on war for our economic wellbeing, and
we need to seek and use other solutions to solve international problems that plague our world. Jim
Wallis, a tireless advocate for peace and justice reminds us to think of the human cost of war, not
only in an economic sense, but also in terms of human lives lost or left totally disabled as a result of
the violence. Many are asking today, “How can we spend so much on destruction of human life
when over one billion people are hungry worldwide?” We are close to spiritual bankruptcy. We need
to use our energy and resources to work for peace, justice and human dignity. Martin Luther King has
often reminded us that every dollar spent on war is stolen from the people who need it the most, who
are trying to get the basic necessities of life for themselves and their children. War is not the answer.
It only leaves a legacy of more violence, destruction of human life and needed resources for people to
survive. Violence only begets more violence. People in the areas where violence abounds can be
taught other ways to solve conflicts. How can the hope in a broken and divided world be restored?

We should try to develop a dream that can be shared with people of all ages – to create a world
without nuclear weapons or other weapons of mass destruction. We should believe that another
world is possible and no effort is too small to make a difference. We need to make our voices heard,
loud and clear, and continue to work for the sake of the safety and security of the whole human race.
Let’s speak out boldly against any use of nuclear energy and to divert the trillions of dollars used on
nuclear development to human development and meeting basic human needs. Let us begin today!

Make sentences using these phrases and translate them from English into Georgian.

continuation of politics carried on by other means

_____________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
a chronicle of nearly constant strife
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
a society tracing its origin back to a single ancestor
_____________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
grow naturally out of the tribe mentality
_____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
result in a dichotomy of an “us” vs. a “them”
_____________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
engenders a latent fear of the “other”
_____________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
wreak chaos and destruction upon the lives
_____________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
merciless slaughter and butchery
_____________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
engulf the entire world
_____________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
a recurrent phenomenon in the history of nations
_____________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
different angle of looking at matters
_____________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
become sick of the monotony of peace and seek war for change
_____________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
extension of knowledge
_____________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
spur men to heroism and self- sacrifice
_____________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
an incentive to scientific research and development
_____________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
an escape form the lethargy of peace
_____________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
factors that contribute to wars
_____________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
human greed for wealth and intolerance towards the other
_____________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
expose to radiation
_____________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
inflict damage
_____________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
bring untold miseries as well as political and economic instability
_____________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
start off by sending innocent lives out to war
_____________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
have the notable downside of making the world a more dangerous place
_____________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
values that dehumanize and destroy life
_____________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
human cost of war
_____________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
spiritual bankruptcy
_____________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
get basic necessities of life
_____________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
leave a legacy of more violence
_____________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
areas where violence abounds
_____________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
restore the hope in a broken and divided world
_____________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
make peace a reality
_____________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
reach out across lines of color, class and creed
_____________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
continuing and expanding poverty, dependency, hostility towards immigrants and refugees
_____________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
eliminate discrimination, intolerance and violence
_____________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
bridge cultural and religious barriers
_____________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
continue the peace-making endeavor
_____________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
come up with solutions
_____________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
face and forgive the wrongs of the past
_____________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
prejudice and intolerance
_____________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
replace violence with a culture of justice and peace
_____________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
room for healthy discord
_____________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
UNIT 2. SOCIETY AND INDIVIDUAL

SOCIAL ORDER OF THE STATE AND THE LIBERTY OF THE INDIVIDUAL

Ever since man first created societies there has been a dilemma between the social order of the state
and the liberty of the individual. In nature man is completely free, acting without fear of legal or
moral consequence in acquiring whatever he desires. In societies such behavior would lead to chaos
as individuals warred against one another, with the consequence of the stronger benefiting at the
expense of the weaker regardless of concepts of fairness or justice. Laws are enacted and enforced by
the state to ensure that no individual’s desires impose upon the liberties of another. The nature of
man is to desire absolute liberty but societies must impose order to keep such desires from robbing
other individuals of their right to liberty. Thus, a social contract is engaged in where a certain
measure of liberty is sacrificed for a certain measure of protection of other liberties. Just for this
reason, it is impossible for man to have absolute liberty in society where social order rules.

The Ancient Greeks experimented with various forms of social order. Aristotle’s view of liberty was a
concept that encompassed both the ability to rule and the willingness to be ruled. According to
Aristotle, liberty means equality for all individuals i.e. each should have access to the opportunity to
rule. Liberty was considered living as one so chooses, but within this harmony with the social order.

Society has been viewed in different ways according to the view taken of the relationship between
society and the individual. A major conflict in society and in literature is that between the individual
and the group, between the individual and his or her society. The mentioned theme indicates the
tension between the rights and needs of the individual for full expression against the desire on the
part of the community for order and discipline. Society and the individual are often at odds in fiction,
and different writers will see that it is right either for the individual to accede to the norms of society
or for the individual to rebel against these norms as an imposition. Life throws the individual into the
moral dilemma of adherence to duty or election of free will to avoid it. We see that a majority of the
individuals in combat elect to follow duty as opposed to free will.

American people struggle to synthesize autonomy of the individual with fitting into society. Despite
individualism being a fundamental ideal of American society, the "diffuse and anonymous authority
of democracy" may not always favor the autonomy of the individual” (Reismann). Deviant behavior
refers to behavior that does not conform to norms, does not meet with the expectations of a group or
of society as a whole. Every institution that is of benefit to society also poses risks to society including
the risk that innocent victims will die.

Greater public order lowers crime but limits individual rights. Laws concentrating on individual
rights tend to create public disorder and high fear of crime. Oliver Wendell Holmes’ formulation of
liberty is that "each individual should have the maximum liberty consistent with the equal liberty of
all other individuals".
Those who support the primacy of individual rights over the maintenance of order argue that the
protection of society comes mainly through recognition of the rights of the individual.

Georg Simmel believed that individuals were shaped by their position and role in society. Each of the
elementary selves that compose society reflect the unity and structure of the processes that
individuals undertake, meaning that the structure of a complete individual is a crystal clear reflection
of the structure of a complete society.

The normative value which has shaped American society dating back to the colonial era is
individualism coupled with the requirement that Americans must make something of themselves
through work and through their contributions to society.

MAN AND SOCIETY

By A. Spirkin

The problem of man cannot be solved scientifically without a clear statement of the relationship
between man and society, as seen in the primary collectivity—the family, the play or instruction
group, the production team and other types of formal or informal collectivity. In the family the
individual abandons some of his specific features to become a member of the whole. The life of the
family is related to the division of labor according to sex and age, the carrying on of husbandry,
mutual assistance in everyday life, the upbringing of the children and also various moral, legal and
psychological relationships. The family is a crucial instrument for the development of personality.

It is here that the child first becomes involved in social life, absorbs its values and standards of
behavior, its ways of thought, language and certain value orientations. It is this primary group that
bears the major responsibility to society. Through the group the child, as he grows older, enters
society. It is essential that a person should feel himself part of a group at his own wish, and that the
group should voluntarily accept him, take in his personality. A group generates public opinion, it
sharpens and polishes the mind and shapes the character and will. Through the group a person rises
to the level of a personality, a conscious subject of historical creativity. The group is the first shaper of
the personality, and the group itself is shaped by society.

The individual is a link in the chain of the generations. His affairs are regulated not only by himself,
but also by the social standards, by the collective reason or mind. The true token of individuality is
the degree to which a certain individual in certain specific historical conditions has absorbed the
essence of the society in which he lives.

Consider, for instance, the following historical fact. Who or what would Napoleon Bonaparte have
been if there had been no French Revolution? It is difficult or perhaps even impossible to answer this
question. But one thing is obvious — he would never have become a great general and certainly not
an emperor. He himself was well aware of his debt and in his declining years said: "My son cannot
replace me. I could not replace myself. I am the creature of circumstances." It has long been
acknowledged that great epochs give birth to great men. What tribunes of the people were lifted by
the tide of events of the French Revolution— Mirabeau, Marat, Robespierre, Danton.

It is sometimes said that society carries the individual as a river carries a boat. This is a pleasant
simile, but not exact. An individual does not float with the river - he is the turbulently flowing river
itself. The events of social life do not come about by themselves; they are made. The great and small
paths of the laws of history are blazed by human effort and often at the expense of human blood. The
laws of history are not charted in advance by superhuman forces - they are made by people, who
then submit to their authority as something that is above the individual.

The key to the mysteries of human nature is to be found in society. Society is the human being in his
social relations, and every human being is an individual embodiment of social relations, a product not
only of the existing social system but of all world history. He absorbs what has been accumulated by
the centuries and passed on through traditions. Modern man carries within himself all the ages of
history and all his own individual ages as well. His personality is a concentration of various strata of
culture. He is influenced not only by modern mass media, but also by the writings of all times and
every nation. He is the living memory of history, the focus of all the wealth of knowledge, abilities,
skills, and wisdom that have been amassed through the ages.

Man is a kind of super-dense living atom in the system of social reality. He is a concentration of the
actively creative principle in this system. Through myriads of visible and invisible impulses the fruit
of people's creative thought in the past continues to nourish him and, through him, contemporary
culture.

Sometimes the relation between man and society is interpreted in such a way that the latter seems to
be something that goes on around a person, something in which he is immersed. But this is a
fundamentally wrong approach. Society does, of course, exist outside the individual as a kind of social
environment in the form of a historically shaped system of relations with rich material and spiritual
culture that is independent of his will and consciousness. The individual floats in this environment all
his life. But society also exists in the individual himself and could not exist at all, apart from the real
activity of its members. History in itself does nothing. Society possesses no wealth whatever. It fights
no battles. It grows no grain. It produces no tools for making things or weapons for destroying them.
It is not society as such but man who does all this, who possesses it, who creates everything and fights
for everything. Society is not some impersonal being that uses the individual as a means of achieving
its aims. All world history is nothing but the daily activity of individuals pursuing their aims. Here
we are talking not about the actions of individuals who are isolated and concerned only with
themselves, but about the actions of the masses, the deeds of historical personalities and peoples. An
individual developing within the framework of a social system has both certain dependence on the
whole system of social standards and autonomy that is an absolutely necessary precondition for the
life and development of the system. The measure of this personal autonomy is historically
conditioned and depends on the character of the social system itself. Exceptional rigidity in a social
system makes it impossible or extremely difficult for individual innovations in the form of creative
activity in various spheres of life to take place, and this inevitably leads to stagnation.

Let’s return once again to the simile of the river! The history of humankind is like a great river
bearing its waters into the ocean of the past. What is past in life does not become something that has
never been. No matter how far we go from the past, it still lives to some extent in us and with us.
From the very beginning, the character of the man-society relationship changed substantially in
accordance with the flow of historical time. The relationship between the individual and a primitive
horde was one thing. Brute force was supreme and instincts were only slightly controlled, although
even then there were glimpses of moral standards of cooperation without which any survival, let
alone development, would have been impossible. In tribal conditions people were closely bound by
ties of blood. At that time there were no legal relationships. Not the individual but the tribe, the
genus, was the law-giver. The interests of the individual were syncretized with those of the
commune. In the horde and in tribal society there were leaders who had come to the fore by their
resourcefulness, brains, agility, strength of will, and so on. Labor functions were divided on the basis
of age and sex, as were the forms of social and other activity. With the development of the “socium”
an increasing differentiation of social functions takes place. People acquire private personal rights and
duties, personal names, and a constantly growing measure of personal responsibility. The individual
gradually becomes a personality, and his relations with society acquire an increasingly complex
character. When the society based on law and the state first arose, people were sharply divided
between masters and slaves, rulers and ruled. Slave society with its private property set people against
one another. Some individuals began to oppress and exploit others.

Feudal society saw the emergence of the hierarchy of castes, making some people totally dependent
on others. On the shoulders of the common toiler there grew up an enormous parasitic tree with
kings or tsars at its summit. This pyramid of social existence determined the rights and duties of its
citizens, and the rights were nearly all at the top of the social scale. This was a society of genuflection,
where not only the toilers but also the rulers bowed the knee to the dogma of Holy Scripture and the
image of the Almighty.

The age of the Renaissance was a hymn to the free individual and to the ideal of the strong fully
developed human being blazing trails of discovery into foreign lands, broadening the horizons of
science, and creating masterpieces of art and technical perfection. History became the scene of
activity for the enterprising and determined individual. Not for him the impediments of the feudal
social pyramid, where the idle wasted their lives and money, enjoying every privilege, and the toilers
were kept in a state of subjugation and oppression. At first came the struggle for freedom of thought,
of creativity. This grew into the demand for civil and political freedom.

As a result of the bourgeois revolutions that followed, the owners of capital acquired every privilege,
and also political power. The noble demand that had been inscribed on the banners of the bourgeois
revolutions — liberty, equality and fraternity — turned out to mean an abundance of privileges for
some and oppression for others. Individualism blossomed forth, an individualism in which everybody
considered himself the hub of the universe and his own existence and prosperity more important
than anyone else's. People set themselves up in opposition to other people and to society as a whole.
Such mutual alienation is a disease that corrupts the whole social system. The life of another person,
even one's nearest, becomes no more than a temporary show, a passing cloud. The growing
bureaucracy and utilitarianism in culture considerably narrow the opportunities for human
individuality to express and develop itself. The individual becomes an insignificant cog in the gigantic
machine controlled by capital.

The individual is free where he not only serves as a means of achieving the goals of the ruling class
and its party but is himself the chief goal of society, the object of all its plans and provisions. The
main condition for the liberation of the individual is the abolition of exploitation of one individual by
another, of hunger and poverty, and the reassertion of man's sense of dignity. This was the kind of
society of which the utopian socialists and the founders of scientific socialism dreamed.

The thinkers of the past, who were truly dedicated to the idea of benefiting the working folk, pointed
out the dangers of a system governed by the forces of alienation, a system in which some people live
at the expense of other people's labor, where human dignity is flouted and man's physical and
intellectual powers drained by exploitation.

In contrast to bourgeois individualism, socialist collectivism starts off from the interests of the
individual— not just the chosen few but all genuine working people. Socialism everywhere requires
striking, gifted personalities with plenty of initiative. A person with a sense of perspective is the
highest ideal of the creative activity of the socialist society.

A person's whole intellectual make-up bears the clear imprint of the life of society as a whole. All his
practical activities are individual expressions of the historically formed social practice of humanity.
The implements that he uses have in their form a function evolved by a society which predetermines
the ways of using them.

The wealth and complexity of the individual's social content are conditioned by the diversity of his
links with the social whole, the degree to which the various spheres of the life of society have been
assimilated and refracted in his consciousness and activity. This is why the level of individual
development is an indicator of the level of development of society, and vice versa. But the individual
does not dissolve into society. He retains his unique and independent individuality and makes his
contribution to the social whole: just as society itself shapes human beings, so human beings shape
society.

(Abridged)

Make sentences using these phrases and translate them from English into Georgian.

act without fear of legal or moral consequence

_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
the stronger benefiting at the expense of the weaker
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
regardless of concepts of fairness or justice
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
impose upon the liberties of another
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
rob other individuals of their right to liberty
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
experiment with various forms of social order
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
the ability to rule and the willingness to be ruled
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
have access to the opportunity to rule
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
accede to the norms of society
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
rebel against the norms as an imposition
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
throw the individual into the moral dilemma of adherence to duty
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
follow duty as opposed to free will
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
synthesize autonomy of the individual with fitting into society
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
diffuse and anonymous authority of democracy
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
refer to behavior that does not conform to norms
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
lower crime but limits individual rights
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
maximum liberty consistent with the equal liberty of others
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
support the primacy of individual rights over the maintenance of order
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
abandon some of his specific features
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
related to the division of labor
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
absorb its values and standards of behavior
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
bear the major responsibility to society
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
generate public opinion
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
sharpen and polish the mind
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
shape the character and will
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
rise to the level of a personality
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
concentration of various strata of culture
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
living memory of history
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
historically shaped system of relations
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
develop within the framework of a social system
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
dependence on the whole system of social standards
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
necessary precondition for the life and development of the system
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
measure of the personal autonomy
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
historically conditioned
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
glimpses of moral standards of cooperation
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
increasing differentiation of social functions
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
emergence of hierarchy
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
society of genuflection
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
broaden the horizons of science
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
technical perfection
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
in a state of subjugation and oppression
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
mutual alienation
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
narrow the opportunities for human individuality
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
insignificant cog in the gigantic machine
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
bear the clear imprint of the life of society
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
indicator of the level of development of society
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
retain unique and independent individuality
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
UNIT 3. CHALLENGES OF OUR CENTURY

MUCH OF WHAT NEEDS TO BE DONE IS NOT HAPPENING

In today’s globalized world, life is often driven by economic and financial engines. It is easy to lose
sight of the common good and the needs of the human family in such a world. The only thing that
counts is power and control which is in the hands of a few, with little concern for the millions of
nameless people who are struggling for their very lives. The problem of poverty in a land of plenty is
a piercing moral challenge for the whole human family. A way must be found to enable everyone to
benefit from the fruits of the earth and not simply ignore the gap between the rich and those who
must be satisfied with the crumbs falling from the table. The poor must be inspired by something
more than good will, or promises.

There are many clear signs that the current situation cannot be sustained much longer. Inequality
has been jeopardizing economic growth and poverty reduction. It has been stalling progress in
education, health, and nutrition. It has also limited access to economic, social and political resources,
and has been driving conflict and destabilizing an already fragile international community.

Historically, evolution has been in nature’s hands. Now, suddenly, it is largely in human hands, but
we need to be cautious, using our scientific know-how as responsibly as possible. The job of today’s
young people, or the "Transition Generation," will be to get humanity through the coming period of
chaos, peril, and opportunity. A massive transition is needed, and the agenda should be created for
the generation that will bring about this transition. Much of what needs to be done is not happening.

Today's young people will collectively determine whether civilization survives or not. We need to
give them a foundation for making wise choices by helping them understand humankind's likely
possible, probable and preferred futures.

What can humanity become? Our future wealth will increasingly relate to knowledge in the broadest
sense of the term. Here are the 17 great challenges for us and for our children:

 Saving the Earth – A change in humans' capability to manage the Earth well is coming in
micro-instruments that feed voluminous data to computer networks. We are beginning to
gain vast amounts of information about the planet linked into computer models. This will
help us learn to live with nature's trust fund. The planet's climate will change and we have to
learn to live with changes.

 Reversing Poverty – While rich nations become richer, billions of people live in extreme
poverty with short, brutal lives.

 Steadying Population Growth – Extreme poverty can be tied to population problems. There
are now non-oppressive ways to lower the birthrate. Population declines in countries where
 women can read and full women's liberation is in effect. Population also declines when GDP
rises. Improving lifestyles equates with controlling population growth.

 Achieving Sustainable Lifestyles – All of the people on the planet cannot have affluent
lifestyles in 20th century terms and still sustain resources. We need high-quality lifestyles
that don't strain the environment.

 Preventing All-Out War – All-out war in the 21st century could end everything. Nuclear and
biological weapons are a threat. This century contains more threats from more weapons of
mass destruction than ever before.

 Dealing Effectively with Globalism – The planet is "shrinking" and bandwidth is increasing,
but globalism should be designed to allow local cultures to thrive and be protected. The right
balance between global and local should be achieved. Failing nations must be helped to
become developing nations.

 Protecting the Biosphere – We are losing species of plants and animals. Many endangered
species can be protected by identifying and preserving "hot spots" – those places with a high
density of endangered species. Today, 90 percent of the edible fish in the oceans have been
caught. Well-designed marine protection areas can help begin a slow recovery. Laws are
needed to replenish depleted oceans.

 Defusing Terrorism – The age of terrorism is rising with the availability of weapons of mass
destruction that are becoming increasingly less expensive and easier to access. It is vital to
address the reasons why people want to become terrorists and to achieve cooperation among
potentially hostile cultures.

 Cultivating Creativity – Technology will lead to an era of extreme creativity. Exciting jobs
will develop and rich countries will help young people around the planet to become
entrepreneurs. New supply chains and electronically connected businesses will bring value.

 Conquering Disease – We must thwart the rapid spread of infectious diseases that could kill
many millions of people, as has happened already many times in history. We now have
sensors that can detect the existence of a dangerous virus in the air and we are creating
medical procedures to prevent illnesses from spreading. Pandemics require preparation.

 Expanding Human Potential – Most people today fall outrageously short of their potential. A
goal of the 21st century should be to develop the capability latent in everybody by harnessing
powerful technologies that accelerate learning potential.
  The Singularity – Sometime decades from now computer intelligence that is quite different
from human intelligence will feed on itself, becoming more intelligent at a rapidly
accelerating rate. Humanity needs to discover how to avoid being overwhelmed by
accelerating change that is totally out of control and harmful. Technical controls will be
needed to ensure that our machines act in our best interests. The Singularity will enable
many different self-evolving technologies to become "infinite in all directions."

 Confronting Existential Risk – This type of risk is one that could terminate Homo sapiens,
including such possibilities as the release of a dangerous genetically modified pathogen.

 Exploring Transhumanism – This is the first century in which we will be able to radically
change human beings, and this fact alone gives it special meaning. Technology will enable us
to live longer, learn more, and gain the ability to connect our brains to other external devices.
Transhumanism will be highly controversial. It will raise major ethical arguments. We might
lose some of the qualities we now see as making us "human." There will also be extreme
differences between those who have the technology and those who don't. We need to make
changes without suffering overall-negative consequences. Transhumanism can lead us to
build a civilization far more advanced than today's.

 Planning an Advanced Civilization – Sooner or later machines will do all the work and there
will be a major increase in real wealth. What we do with our leisure will be a big issue.
Because of transhumanism changes will be more extreme than most people can understand.
We need to be asking ourselves now, "What kind of civilization would we build if we could
do anything?"

 Modeling the Planet's Systems – We need to be sure we do not go beyond the point at which
global warming cannot be reversed, earth system science must be meticulously modeled and
monitoring must be precise.

 Bridging the Skill and Wisdom Gap – A serious problem right now is the gap between our
skill and our wisdom. Science and technology are accelerating furiously, but wisdom is not.
Today, deep reflection about our future circumstances is eclipsed by the rush to build faster,
cheaper, smarter, more-efficient gadgets that will increase corporate profits. The skill-wisdom
gap is enlarged because skills offer the ways to get wealthy. Society's best brains are saturated
with immediate issues that become ever more complex, rather than reflecting on why we are
doing this and what the long-term consequences will be.

These challenges provide a framework to assess the global and local prospects for humanity. The
mentioned challenges are transnational in nature and transinstitutional in solution. They cannot be
addressed by any government or institution acting alone. They require collaborative action among
governments, international organizations, corporations, and creative individuals.

Most of the problems are the consequences of bad management and absence of foresight. There is no
silver bullet. Many different factors have to be brought into play to deal with the problem.

Just as the problems are the result of bad management, so the solutions need to be the application of
excellent management.

The 21st Century is the time for human seeking harmonizing with environment and carrying out
sustainable development strategy. But sustainable development is facing many challenges. They may
mainly include the follows: challenge comes from the contradiction between human and the earth,
challenge of local benefit conflict to human common goal, challenge of competition to fairness,
challenge of unbalanced development in regions and countries, challenge of diversity and challenge
of calamity. Challenges are not only pressure, but also the motive force. Challenge exists; the motive
force would never stop. Sustainable development was born in challenges, is developing in
contradiction and will sustain in conflict.

THE CALL AND THE CHALLENGE

Several years ago, the United Nations established the event to call attention to and urge involvement
in caring for our environment and to focus on world hunger and its devastating effects on the whole
human family. The focus was on food consumption patterns and wastage and calls our attention on
the need to seriously address hunger in our world, food waste, food loss and our consumption
patterns.

We should realize that it is everyone’s responsibility to become engaged in finding a solution. WE

should be the agents of change for sustainable and equitable development for all people.

The United Nations study tells us that “one in every seven children in the world go to bed hungry
and more than 20,000 children under the age of five die daily from hunger.” We cannot allow this to
continue or we will all be responsible. We are also reminded about the amount of food that is wasted.
For a long time we have been reminded of the need to reduce, reuse, recycle. What are some of the
ways we can do this?

All over the world, many people are suffering from obesity and need to eat less and eat healthier
food. They need to find ways not to waste food and look at how leftovers can be used. Throwing food
away is like stealing food from children dying of hunger. Sometimes human life is not perceived as
the primary value to respect and protect, especially if they are poor or disabled, or if they are no
longer needed or useful.
We have become insensitive to waste, including food waste. This is reprehensible when in every part
of the world, unfortunately, many people and families are suffering from hunger and malnutrition.
Gandhi once said: “We have enough for everyone’s need but not enough for everyone’s greed.” When
we share food with care and compassion, none need to die of hunger.

Human suffering is often ignored, while financial market drops are considered a tragedy. In our
industrial world, the majority of waste is by consumers, who often buy too much and throw the rest
away. People need to select what they buy and use with purpose.

Make sentences using these phrases and translate them from English into Georgian.

driven by economic and financial engines

_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
lose sight of the common good
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
economic growth and poverty reduction
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
driving conflict and destabilizing an already fragile international community
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________

get humanity through the coming period of chaos

_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
foundation for making wise choices
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
tied to population problems
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
equate with controlling population growth.
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
strain the environment
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
places with a high density of endangered species
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
well-designed marine protection areas
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
replenish depleted oceans
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
rise with the availability of weapons of mass destruction
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
become increasingly less expensive and easier to access
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
potentially hostile cultures
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________

thwart the rapid spread of infectious diseases

_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________

detect the existence of a dangerous virus

_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
prevent illnesses from spreading
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
fall outrageously short of their potential
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
accelerate learning potential
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
avoid being overwhelmed by accelerating change
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
gain the ability to connect our brains to other external devices
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
suffer overall-negative consequences
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
go beyond the point at which global warming cannot be reversed
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
meticulously modeled
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
deep reflection about our future circumstances
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
provide a framework to assess the global and local prospects for humanity
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
transnational in nature and transinstitutional in solution
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
absence of foresight
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
application of excellent management.
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
contradiction between human and the earth
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
challenge of local benefit conflict to human common goal
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
challenge of diversity and challenge of calamity
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
develop in contradiction and sustain in conflict
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
change for sustainable and equitable development
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
perceived as the primary value to respect and protect
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
become insensitive to waste
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
suffer from hunger and malnutrition
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
financial market drops
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________

UNIT 4. HOW THE INTERNET IS CHANGING INTERNATIONAL POLITICS AND DIPLOMACY

THE RISE OF “NETPOLITIK”

By David Bollier

Introduction

In the midst of her travels as Secretary of State, Madeleine Albright decided to venture off the
standard diplomatic tour and visit the local market in Bakhara, Uzbekistan. “For all intents and
purposes it could have been in the fifteenth century,” she recalled. “It was a big camel market, with
rugs that looked like they had been hanging there for a long time. Dust and all that.” “I decided that I
would go to what I thought was one of the more exotic shops, where they were selling spices of
different kinds. As the guy was describing all these spices and making little paper cones to put them
in, I asked him to tell me what spices would go with what foods. And he said, ‘Great, but just let me
give you my e-mail address and we can stay in touch.’ ”

Albright’s story may be small and amusing, but it suggests how profoundly global culture and
international politics are changing. Individuals from some of the most isolated corners of the world
can now interact with the richest centers of civilization in an everyday fashion. Powers that were
once the monopoly of nation-states — participation in international politics, control of transnational
communications, credibility as sources of accurate information — are now being exercised by a much
wider array of players. The Internet has greatly lowered the costs of transmitting information,
enabling people to bypass traditional intermediaries whose power revolved around the control of
information: national governments, the diplomatic corps, transnational corporations, and news
organizations, among others. As a result, nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), academic experts,
diasporic ethnic communities, and individuals are using the Internet to create their own global
platforms and political influence. As the velocity of information increases and the types of publicly
available information diversify, the very architecture of international relations is changing
dramatically. These new phenomena deserve a name—the word Netpolitik has been suggested—to
describe a new type of diplomacy that succeeds Realpolitik. Realpolitik, the German term for “power
politics,” is an approach to international diplomacy that is “based on strength rather than appeals to
morality and world opinion.” Netpolitik is a new style of diplomacy that seeks to exploit the powerful
capabilities of the Internet to shape politics, culture, values, and personal identity. But unlike
Realpolitik—which seeks to advance a nation’s political interests through amoral coercion—
Netpolitik traffics in “softer” issues such as moral legitimacy, cultural identity, societal values, and
public perception.

“Control of information and entertainment, and through them, of opinions and images, has
historically been the anchoring tool of state power, to be perfected in the age of mass media,” writes
Manuel Castells in a 1997 essay. Now this traditional power of nation-states is waning. There is
hardly any country in the world that has not privatized and commercialized its mass-media system or
allowed its citizens to connect to the Internet. Even traditionally closed countries such as China,
Singapore, and Islamic fundamentalist nations have entered the Internet age, albeit with restrictions.
“We’re at the beginning of the third fundamental economic revolution in the history of humanity,”
argues Bill Coleman, chairman and chief strategy officer of BEA Systems, an enterprise software
company. “The agriculture revolution had to do with the quantity of food that could be produced to
feed the population. The industrial revolution was fueled and lubricated by the quantity and velocity
of capital. But what’s really changing the world today is the dramatic increase in the quantity and
velocity of information.

As electronic networking gradually insinuates itself into more aspects of life and more corners of the
world, “it is changing the powers of the nation-state and the very definition of national security,” said
Madeleine Albright.

Speaking from the perspective of a small nation, Boris Trajkovski, president of the Republic of
Macedonia, believes information technology has caused a shift in the fundamental bases of national
power: “Power in the global information society depends less on territory, military power, and
natural resources. Rather, information, technology, and institutional flexibility have gained
importance in international relations. The power of knowledge, beliefs, and ideas are the main tools
of political actors in the efforts to achieve their goals.” Mircea Dan Geoana, minister of foreign affairs
of Romania, agreed with this assessment: “We are witnessing a dramatic shift in the content, context,
and architecture of world affairs,” he said. “We are also seeing a dramatic change in the very
definition of ‘national interest,’ which is increasingly seen as having to do with economic
competitiveness, cultural influence, and regional or sub regional influence.”

Once upon a time, diplomatic communications were carried on through predictable venues and stable
deliberative processes.

The rise of CNN and the Internet has greatly shortened the time horizons of diplomatic decision
making. News from distant lands can become public knowledge more quickly than ever before. “All
these large numbers of information systems make diplomacy much harder to carry on,” said
Madeleine Albright, “because the information comes in very fast and you have to make decisions
much faster than you might under previous circumstances. Everybody wants an answer right away.”

Albright said it is not unusual for CNN to report, for example, that a bomb has gone off somewhere
and it wants a government official’s reaction. “You might try to hold back by saying, ‘I don’t have any
comment at this moment,’ which you would think is a safe thing to say. But it turns out not to be
safe, because then reporters will say, ‘Well, the U.S. government doesn’t know what it’s doing,’ or
‘There are things going on behind the scenes.’ The press has become a player in the process.”

Robert D. Hormats, vice chairman of Goldman Sachs (International) and a former top official at the
State Department and Office of the U.S. Trade Representative, believes there is greater “tension
between velocity of information and judgment” now more than ever.

“One of the important objectives in this new environment in which we’re all operating—where there
is a lot of very high velocity information and a huge amount of information coming together—is to
figure out a procedure and mindset for making intelligent judgments,” said Hormats. With so much
information flooding in and intense pressures to respond quickly, policymakers must learn restraint
and establish orderly procedures for processing information, he advised.

“Patience was the last lesson of the Cold War,” agreed William Perry, senior fellow at the Hoover
Institution and U.S. Secretary of Defense from 1994 to 1997. “But you didn’t have CNN then. It is
much, much harder to sit back and be patient today and let things unfold. There are usually
photographs being sent all over the world, and reporters are asking the Secretary of State and the
Secretary of Defense,‘What are you going to do about that?’ This makes life much, much harder for
policymakers.” “CNN is the sixteenth member of the U.N. Security Council,” said Madeleine Albright
ruefully. Its decisions about what to cover have enormous consequences for international diplomacy,
she said.

CNN and other international news outlets have actually elbowed aside many traditional sources of
diplomatic communications. “When I came to Washington less than three years ago,” said Nabil
Fahmy, Ambassador of the Arab Republic of Egypt to the United States, “I basically decided I would
not compete with the media in sending information to Egypt. It was a futile attempt to get it there
first. So I stopped reporting most current information. I assumed that people had the news back home
because they watched CNN.”

The flood of vivid, real-time information washing over both the public and government policymakers
has led to “an information glut, but no explanation or interpretation,” said David Konzevik, president
and chief executive officer (CEO) of Konzevik Y. Asociados, an international firm based in Mexico.
“Then we have a skeptical society because people don’t have the instruments to analyze the
information.” The Internet gives access to a lot of information, Konzevik said, but “it does not give
you knowledge.” This reality—plentiful information and scarce knowledge—suggests the need for
better editorial intermediaries. New filters are needed to sift through the mountains of raw
information and place it in an intelligent context and perspective. New types of editorial
intermediaries are needed to select important information, interpret it, and warrant what it is
trustworthy and what is not.

THE INVISIBLE SCAFFOLDING FOR CONSTRUCTING MEANING

Americans may like to think that facts are facts and that a television news story is a fairly
straightforward communications artifact. But in fact, even the meaning of simple news stories can
vary greatly depending upon the social practices of a given society. “Whenever we read a news story
about the health dangers of butter,” a Russian woman once told Esther Dyson, “we would run out and
buy as much butter as we could find because we knew it meant there was going to be a shortage. We
really had no interest in the dangers of butter. We went beyond the information and looked at the
motivation of the sender of that information. ‘Why are they putting out this news about butter?’ we
would ask. Well, it was because they didn’t want us to buy butter. They wanted us to buy margarine
instead.” In the United States, the news stories on CNN seem entirely natural and normative; the
content and style of presentation complement our own cultural assumptions. But in many eastern
European countries, said Dyson, CNN programming is seen as “a fantasy about some other world. It
has very little relevance to most people. It just doesn’t seem real.” A Russian visiting a conference of
Hungarian entrepreneurs told Dyson, “You know, I knew about Bill Gates, but he wasn’t real to me.
Now, when I look at these Hungarians, I understand what I can do.” Dyson concludes that “putting
stories in the context of receivers is tremendously important.” If one starts to unravel the reasons why
even simple symbols and stories can carry such radically different meanings in different societies, The
Report 29 one is forced to reckon with the invisible “scaffolding” of social and cultural factors that
contrive to create meaning. Credibility resides in the social context and origins of a message and in
the identity of the sender. Someone who is part of a trusted social network, for example, or the leader
of a popular political party, is likely to be viewed more sympathetically than someone who is
unfamiliar and strange. Such issues are significant because the Internet is changing the “scaffolding”
that a society uses in creating meaning. The social context of a message is no longer self-evident. Nor
is the identity of the speakers generating information. The Internet is decontextualizing information
from the social frames that give it meaning, making it more complicated than ever to align the
intended meanings of the sender with the interpretations of the receiver. Film is a rich medium for
studying the fascinating interplay of content and context in generating meaning. Elizabeth Monk
Daley, dean of the University of Southern California’s School of Cinema Television, pointed out that
in constructing films, context is a critical factor at two levels: the artistic context within the film and
the social context of the audience. Within a film, the juxtaposition of sounds, music, images, colors,
plotlines, cinematography, etc. work to create a rich palette of meanings. “If you give me a film and
let me change its soundtrack,” said John Seely Brown, “not only will I completely change the
meaning of that film, but I will actually change what you see. Many of the things you think you saw
in Jurassic Park were not there. Using the soundtrack, I could cut an image and then extend in your
own mind what that image ‘should’ be doing. So the deep interplay between the soundtrack and the
image cutting actually leads to your seeing things that were not there.” Brown calls this zone where
context and content meet the “border around the content.” There is an implicit contextual frame
through which the content is perceived and interpreted. The frame is both an internal artistic frame
—the editing of a film, the lighting, the soundtrack, and so forth—as well as a social and cultural
frame. In both cases, the frame consists of “subconscious mechanisms that ‘scaffold’ how we will
come to understand that primary content stream,” Brown said. The point is that the scaffolding that
we use to interpret a text or film or music can enhance our understanding — or mislead us.

In any case, the interplay between a work’s context and content must be attended to. Daley
illustrated this point with one of her favorite examples: American cowboy western films as viewed by
the Japanese. A documentary filmmaker went to a popular Japanese bar where American westerns are
frequently shown. She asked the audience why they enjoyed the films. After all, she pointed out,
American westerns are all about the rugged individual standing against society, and Japan is a society
built on consensus. But the Japanese audience responded, “You don’t understand your own films.
They are about consensus around the campfire.” “Were the Japanese viewers wrong?” asked Daley.
“No, but it certainly wasn’t what any American filmmaker ever anticipated they would say.” Daley
explained that “films are created in a very specific cultural context, by people with very specific
points of view…. You float your media out there in these very complex environments, and that is the
danger and power of film. It’s a layered communication. It impacts people on very different levels.” In
a media-saturated world, international diplomacy would do well to study the ways that context and
content interact. “What are the processes for constructing credibility?” asked John Seely Brown.
“What are the processes for constructing trust? For constructing understanding?” What is rarely
appreciated, said Brown, is that “these processes have their own time-constant to them.”

Trust, credibility, and context must be built up over a long period. But information technologies
typically decontextualize. What may seem to the sender to be a self-contained bundle of knowledge
may be regarded in very different ways by the receiver. Global networks enable communication that
is almost devoid of context. The user often does not know the content provider. Internet use is mostly
unnoticed by the physical communities to which the user belongs. This is important because values
are embedded in context. Trespassers cannot be reminded of the value if the violation remains
invisible. If trust, values, and context are important factors in real communication, but the Internet
generally fails to represent such factors, then a new set of structural dilemmas are spawned for
anyone seeking to carry on effective online communications.

A true meeting of the minds also can be hampered by the fact that people’s subjective identities and
views vary so greatly. “There are multilateral receivers,” said Madeleine Albright. “I think as we sit
here, we are all receiving similar but not necessarily the same message. I’ve heard different things
today that make me think differently about things than when I walked in here. So the effect of it all
is much more dynamic than we are willing to accept.” Prior belief systems shape how we receive and
understand information. It is evident in the radically different histories that different nations write
about the same historical events. One of the major, ongoing sources of tension in East Asia happens to
be the different descriptions and interpretations of twentieth century history between Japan and
China and between Japan and Korea. If you look at the textbooks of these countries, there is a huge
discrepancy in the accounts of what occurred, especially in the 1930s and 1940s. These histories
shape the consciousness of people and the ways in which information is interpreted and used. In
international diplomacy, said Albright, the multiple audiences for any single statement mean that
“you don’t know to whom you are really speaking. I mean, you just send out words, and you don’t
know how they will be taken.”

STORIES

The clash of multiple subjectivities in Netpolitik may have less to do with facts and analysis than with
identity and values. Clashes are not just a matter of disputed content; they also are a matter of
disparate contexts for interpreting that content—one of the hallmarks of international diplomacy. A
useful way of talking about the clash of multiple subjectivities is through stories. The point of a story
is not its truth or falsity but rather the way in which it organizes identity, values, and social behavior
into a coherent worldview. “Stories allow us to explain and contextualize the world we live in”, said
Elizabeth Monk Daley. “They help us understand who we are as human beings, but they do this
through the language of metaphor. Their truth is mythic, not factual, and depending on the shape
that the narrative takes the same fundamental story can have very many different impacts.” For
example, as anthropologist Bronislaw Malinowsky once pointed out, a society that believes that men
are superior to women may tell a creation myth in which the sun, a male symbol, raped the moon, a
female symbol, and therefore created the earth. On the other hand, a society could tell the story a
different way— for example, that the moon seduced the sun and so created the earth. That story
would have a different meaning. “Narrative provides a chain of causality for otherwise apparently
unconnected facts,” said Murray Gell-Mann, the physicist and cochairman of the science board at the
Santa Fe Institute. “The grammar of narratives is important to us because it is the best way, in most
cases, to present things—not only in fiction but also in reference to facts and to very deep analysis
and understanding.”

“One of the grand narratives of the United States,” said Elizabeth Daley, “is that anyone can achieve
anything they want. Everybody can pull themselves up by their own bootstraps. This is hardly true
for a great many Americans, but it remains one of our national stories.”

In any case, thanks to the Internet, people are experimenting with new self-images for themselves
and new public images for causes and movements. Some segments of elite society in Bosnia, Serbia,
and Macedonia are talking about the “New Balkans”—a self-conscious “rebranding” of that troubled
region. The hope is that the new image will allow the region to grow into a new identity and image,
domestically and on the world stage. Historically, stories have served as potent shorthand for shared
experiences and worldviews. Consider the role of stories in political revolutions, said Jerry Murdock,
managing director and co-founder of Insight Venture Partners: “The story of the British massacre of
colonists during the American revolution and the story about Marie Antoinette and the necklace in
the French Revolution played a critical role in changing public opinion. Even if some facts are
dubious, stories are part of a revolution and people’s collective memory.” If a good story has
consequences, so does the absence of one. Mircea Dan Geoana of Romania believes that the grand
narrative of European integration, which has compelling economic reasons behind it, is not especially
attractive to the average European citizen. “Citizens are basically disconnected from the grand story,
which will affect our destinies for the next historical cycle. They don’t care. And we, in politics and
bureaucracies, are incapable of telling a story to our own citizens.” “Perhaps the story is not good,”
suggested Esther Dyson, chairman of Edventure Holdings. “That may be why it’s hard to tell it in a
way that’s meaningful to individual people. Maybe that is a symptom and not a problem.” Sometimes
a good story emerges almost magically, enabling an unrecognized sentiment to be publicly articulated
—which in turn can catalyze the formation of a new community. According to Eric Raymond,
Software programmer, “when enough people get focused on an issue and start to produce new things
and start thinking about the same problem, a groundswell starts to happen—and a new message
emerges.” He cited the strange alchemies by which elites in the Balkan region developed the idea of
the “New Balkans” and decentralized terrorist cells developed a shared ideology and strategic plans of
action. In enabling the creation and dissemination of new stories, the Internet is changing the
international ecology of cultural narratives. “We are in the process of melding our stories in many
different ways,” said Madeleine Albright, “primarily because of the impact of global communications
and the ability to hear the other person’s story. Whoever heard the story of Uzbekistan ten years ago?
Whoever even knew where it was?” The result of more stories, however, is a new tension between
“local” stories and the emerging “global story,” said Albright. “There is a conflict between being part
of a small group to which you belong and being part of a larger group—the world community. The
concept of national sovereignty and your individual story is being threatened by the pressure of
having to be part of a larger system.” If stories are becoming a shared artifact for explaining our
relationships to each other and the world, then perhaps a new “global story” is already incubating.
The Internet and globalization are parallel forces that are leading us in the direction of creating a new
language.

The pluralism that goes along with the Internet, in short, may be more pluralistic than we might
imagine. The proliferation of new geopolitical and cultural stories has created a new imperative in
international diplomacy: to cultivate “the humility of listening.” “If I want to tell my story and you
want to tell the American or Egyptian story, you are not going to be able to do that unless you
understand the other person’s story. We need to learn not just each other’s facts, but each other’s
stories. We can learn a great deal if we truly listen to one another’s stories”, said Daley.

The Internet and other information technologies are no longer a peripheral force in the conduct of
world affairs but a powerful engine for change. Global electronic networking is not only remaking
economies, but transforming people’s values, identities, and social practices. Moreover, these changes
are not just occurring within the boundaries of nation-states but in all sorts of unpredictable
transnational communications. These changes are enabling all sorts of newcomers to enter the fray of
international politics.

NGOs, diasporic communities, critics of land mines and human rights abuses, journalists, indigenous
peoples, and others are finding their own voices on a global public stage. More ominously, the very
technology that is empowering civil society and businesses is enabling political extremists to build
global terrorist networks and pioneer alarming new forms of warfare. The new transnational flows of
information are transforming some fundamental terms of power in international affairs. New types of
soft power involving moral legitimacy and respect, credibility as an information source, and cultural
values are coming to the fore. Military and financial powers that traditionally have belonged to the
dominant nations are now constrained in new ways by soft power and the politics of credibility. A
tighter skein of global interdependence may mean that unilateralism by any single nation, especially
the United States, could be a more problematic policy approach. Netpolitik is still an unfolding
doctrine. It seems to be characterized, however, by a higher velocity of information, new time
pressures on thoughtful policymaking, a more robust pluralism in international affairs, and new
challenges to the power of the nation-state and traditional diplomacy.

Netpolitik seems to be a volatile force because of its great reach: affecting everything from the
exercise of state power and military might to issues of deep personal identity and social values. In the
end there may be great wisdom in “the humility of listening” to each other’s stories. Since time
immemorial, stories have conveyed rich bodies of complex information in deeply human ways.
Thanks to the Internet, more segments of the earth’s inhabitants can now tell their stories. This is a
significant development in human history. What may matter most in the future is our ability to hear
each other’s stories, learn from them, and perhaps develop a new global story.

(Abridged)

Make sentences using these phrases and translate them from English into Georgian.

lower the costs of transmitting information

_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
bypass traditional intermediaries
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
based on strength rather than appeals to morality and world opinion
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
seek to exploit the powerful capabilities of the Internet
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
advance a nation’s political interests
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
anchoring tool of state power
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
privatize and commercialize mass-media system
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
fueled and lubricated by the quantity and velocity of capital
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________

dramatic increase in the quantity and velocity of information

_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
cause a shift in the fundamental bases of national power
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
gain importance in international relations
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
dramatic shift in the content, context, and architecture of world affairs
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
predictable venues and stable deliberative processes
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
shorten the time horizons of diplomatic decision making
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
become a player in the process
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
tension between velocity of information and judgment
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
figure out a procedure and mindset for making intelligent judgments
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
process information
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
establish orderly procedures
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
let things unfold
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
sift through the mountains of raw information and place it in an intelligent context
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
credibility resides in the social context and origins of a message
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
decontextualize information from the social frames
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
align the intended meanings of the sender with the interpretations of the receiver
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
provides a chain of causality
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
otherwise apparently unconnected facts
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
serve as potent shorthand for shared experiences and worldviews
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
occur within the boundaries of nation-states
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________

pioneer alarming new forms of warfare

_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
empower civil society
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
convey rich bodies of complex information
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________

UNIT 5. GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT

ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

Economic development is the increase in the standard of living of a population. Economic

development includes economic growth among the main criteria. Economic growth is a sustained
growth from a simple economy to a modern one. The study of economic development includes
theories of the causes, the process, and the policies by which a nation improves the economic,
political, and social well-being of its people. Economic development theories relate to the causes of
industrial-economic modernization, the phases of economic development, and the organizational
related aspects of enterprise development; it requires sociological, economic, and cultural researches
on the evolution of markets and industrial organizations within modern societies. From other
perspectives, economic development of embrace improvements in a variety of indicators such as
literacy rates, life expectancy, poverty rates, health, and education. In fact, these indicators are more
related to economic growth so that development goes often with growth.

Scientists often argue that poor countries and mainly “third-world countries” have experienced very
fast economic growth with barely little economic development and especially during the periods
where they served as resource providers for industrialized countries. Other economists claim that
economic growth causes or contributes to economic development, because at least some of the
increasing income is spent on human sustainable development such as education and health; this is
actually the most reasonable approach regarding this link that joins growth to development.

As economic development relates directly to human development, we can understand this

relationship with so many different explanations. For instance, an increase in disposable incomes
often leads to improvement in health and nutrition. Other people may define economic improvement
of social outcomes related to different so called basic necessities such as clean water supply,
education, social safety and so on. The main point here is that, the outcome is always the same:
economic development aims at improving the well-being of citizens based on different scales of
priorities, depending on the level of economic enhancement of societies. Enhanced economies go
over the basic necessities to provide a higher quality of life.

Economic development implies the increase in per capita income or the increase in national gross
product (GNP). It deals with macroeconomic causes of long term economic growth, and
microeconomic issues such as the incentives of households and firms.

The processes of economic development should not only generate increased or enhanced means of
production but it should also make room for equitable distribution of such resources. Thus by the
term economic development we mean a process so as to raise the per capita output with a scope for
equitable distribution.

“We shall define economic development as the process whereby per capita income of a country
increases over a long period of time” (Meier). Here the word “process” indicates long period changes
related to changes in demand side as well as changes in factor supply.

Changes arising on the demand side are mostly related to consumers, tastes and preferences,
distribution of income, size and composition of country’s population, and other organizational and
institutional changes.
Changes arising on the factor supply are also related to—capital accumulation, discovery of new
resources, introduction of new and more efficient production techniques, increase in size of
population and organizational changes. Cause and consequences of economic development are mostly
determined by the time path and velocity of these aforesaid changes.

While explaining the distinction between economic development and economic growth,
Kindleberger observed, “Economic growth means more output and economic development implies
both more output and changes in the technical and institutional arrangements, by which it is
produced.”

“Economic Development deals with the problem of underdeveloped countries whereas ‘Economic
Growth’ deals with the problem of developed countries. In underdeveloped countries the problems
are that of initiating and accelerating development” (Hicks).

According to, “the raising of income levels is generally called economic growth in rich countries and
in poor ones, it is called economic development” (Maddison).

Economic development, being a dynamic concept refers to the continuous increase in production
over the changing time path.

As per this view, the term growth implies higher level of output as well as achievements in terms of
increase in the volume of economic variables. Accordingly, Kindleberger further observed, “Growth
involves focusing on height or weight, while development draws attention to the change in
functional capacity.”

Although some economists have observed slight differences between economic development and
economic growth but all these differences are imaginary and unreal and thus have little practical
value. In this connection Arthur Lewis has observed, “Most often we shall refer only to “Growth” but
occasionally, for the sake of variety to “Progress” and “Development.”

Attaining higher level of economic development is a function of level of technology. Economic

development is thus a process of raising the rate of capital formation, i.e. both physical capital and
human capital.

The task of economic development is influenced by a number of factors such as—economic, political,
social, technological, natural, administrative etc. According to Lewis, there are three principal causes
of economic development.

These are:

1. Efforts to economize, either by reducing the cost of any product or by raising the yield from
any given input or other resources,
2. Increase in knowledge and its appropriate application;

3. Amount of capital or other resources for land.

While analyzing the determinants of economic growth, Spengler and Rostow have made sincere
attempts in this regard. Spengler has listed about nineteen determinants but Rostow mentioned six
propensities having much bearing on economic growth.

These propensities are:

1. Propensity to develop fundamental services;

2. Propensity to apply science to economic ends;
3. Propensity to initiate technical innovations;
4. Propensity to have material advance;
5. Propensity to consume;
6. Propensity to have children.

All these propensities are showing a clear-cut picture of determinants of economic growth neglecting
the non-economic factors totally. Regarding the determinants of economic growth, Nurkse observed
that “Economic development has much to do with human endowments, social attitude, political
conditions and historical accidents.”

Bauer mentioned that, “The main determinants of economic development are aptitude, abilities,
qualities, capacities and facilities.” Economic development of a country thus depends on both
economic and non-economic factors.

There are some of important economic and non-economic factors determining the pace of economic
development in a country:

Economic Factors:

1. Population and Manpower Resources - Population is considered as an important determinant of

economic growth. In this respect population is working both as a stimulant as well as hurdles to
economic growth. Firstly, population provides labor and entrepreneurship as an important factor
service.

Natural resources of the country can be properly exploited with manpower resources. With proper
human capital formation, increasing mobility and division of labor, manpower resources can provide
useful support to economic development.

On the other hand, higher rate of growth of population increases demand for goods and services as a
means of consumption leading to increasing consumption requirements, lesser balance for investment
and export, lesser capital formation, adverse balance of trade, increasing demand for social and
economic infrastructural facilities and higher unemployment problem.

Accordingly, higher rate of population growth can put serious hurdles on the path of economic
development Moreover, growth of population at a higher rate usually eat up all the benefits of
economic development leading to a slow growth of per capita income.

But it has also been argued by some modern economists that with the growing momentum of
economic development, standard of living of the general masses increases which would ultimately
create a better environment for the control of population growth. Moreover, Easterlin argued that
population pressure may favorably affect individual motivation and this may again lead to changes in
production techniques.

Thus whether growing population in a country practically retards economic growth or contributes to
it that solely depends on the prevailing situation and balance of various other factors determining the
growth in an economy.

2. Natural Resources and its Utilization - Availability of natural resources and its proper utilization
are considered as an important determinant of economic development. If the countries are rich in
natural resources and adopted modern technology for its utilization, then they can attain higher level
of development at a quicker pace. Mere possession of natural resources cannot work as a determinant
of economic development.

In spite of having huge variety of natural resources, some countries of Asia and Africa could not
attain a higher level of development due to lack of its proper utilization. But countries like Britain
and France have modernized their agriculture in spite of shortage of land and the country like Japan
has developed a solid industrial base despite its deficiency in natural resources.

Similarly, Britain has developed its industrial sector by importing some minerals and raw materials
from abroad.

However, an economy having deficiency in natural resources is forced to depend on foreign country
for the supply of minerals and other raw materials in order to run its industry. Thus in conclusion it
can be observed that availability of natural resources and its proper utilization is still working as an
important determinant of economic growth.

3. Capital Formation and Capital Accumulation - Capital formation and capital accumulation are
playing an important role in the process of economic development of the country. Here capital means
the stock of physical reproducible factors required for production. The increase in the volume of
capital formation leads to capital accumulation.
Thus it is quite important to raise the rate of capital formation so as to accumulate a large stock of
machines, tools and equipment by the community for gearing up production.

Thus Nurkse has rightly observed, “The meaning of capital formation is that society does not apply
the whole of its current activity to the needs and desires of immediate consumption, but directs a part
of it to the making of capital goods—tools and instruments, machines and transport facilities, plant
and equipment.”

4. Capital-Output Ratio - Capital-output ratio implies number of units of capital required to produce
per unit of output. It also refers to productivity of capital of different sectors at a definite point of
time.

5. Favorable Investment Pattern - Favorable investment pattern requires proper selection of

industries as investment priorities and choice of production techniques for achieving maximum
productivity.

6. Occupational Structure - Too much dependence on agricultural sector is not an encouraging

situation for economic development.

Increasing pressure of working population on agriculture and other primary occupations must be
shifted gradually to the secondary and tertiary or services sector through gradual development of
these sectors.

The rate of economic development and the level of per capita income increase as more and more
work force shift from primary sector to secondary and tertiary sector.

7. Extent of the Market - Expansion of the scale of production and its diversification depend very
much on the size of the market prevailing in the country.

Moreover, market created in the foreign country is also working as a useful stimulant for the
expansion of primary, secondary and tertiary sectors of the country leading to its economic
development.

8. Technological Advancement - Technological advancement implies improved technical know-how

and its broad- based applications. It includes:

a. Use of technological progress far economic gains;

b. Application of applied sciences resulting in innovations and inventions;

c. Utilization of innovations on a large scale.

9. Development Planning - In recent years, economic planning has been playing an important role in
accelerating the pace of economic development in different countries. Economic development is
considered as an important strategy for building various social and economic overhead infrastructural
facilities along with the development of both agricultural, industrial and services sectors in a balanced
manner.

Planning is also essential for mobilization of resources, capital formation and also to raise the volume
of investment required for accelerating the pace of development.

10. External Factors - The present situation in the world economy necessitates active support of
external factors for sustaining a satisfactory rate of economic growth in underdeveloped economies.
Moreover, domestic resources alone cannot meet the entire requirement of resources necessary for
economic development.

Therefore, at certain levels, availability of foreign resources broadly determines the level of economic
development in a country.

External factors playing important role in sustaining the economic development include:

a. Growing export earnings for financing increasing import bills required for development;

b. Increasing flow of foreign capital in the form of direct foreign investment;

c. International economic co-operation in the form of increasing flow of foreign aid from
advanced countries.

Non-Economic Factors

Economic factors alone are not sufficient for determining the process of economic development in a
country. In order to attain economic development proper social and political climate must be
provided.

In this connection, united Nation Experts observed, “Economic Progress will not occur unless the
atmosphere is favorable to it. The people of a country must desire progress and their social, economic,
legal and political situations must be favorable to it.”

Emphasizing the role of non-economic factors, Cairncross observed, “Development is not governed in
any country by economic forces alone and the more backward the country is, the more this is true.
The key to development lies in men’s minds, in the institution in which their thinking finds
expression and in the play of opportunity on ideas and institution.”

Wright writes, “The fundamental factors making economic growth are non-economic and non-
materialistic in character. It is spirit itself that builds the body.”

Underdevelopment countries are facing various socio-political hurdles in the path of economic
development. Thus in order to attain economic growth, raising the level of investment alone is not
sufficient rather it is also equally important to gradually transform outdated social and political
institutions putting hindrances in the path of economic progress.

Thus there are some of the important non-economic factors determining the pace of economic
development in a country:

1. Urge for Development - It is the mental urge for development of the people in general that is
playing an important determinant for initiating and accelerating the process of economic
development.

In order to attain economic progress, people must be ready to bear both the sufferings and
convenience. Experimental outlook, necessary for economic development must grow with the spread
of education.

2. Spread of Education - Economic progress is very much associated with the spread of education.
Krause has observed that, “Education brings revolutions in ideas for economic progress.”
Education provides stimulus to economic growth as it teaches honesty, patriotism and adventure.
Thus education is working as an engine for economic development.

In this connection, Singer has rightly observed, “Investment in education is not only highly
productive but also yields increasing returns. So, education plays pioneer role for the creation of
human capital and social progress which in turn determines the progress of the country.”

3. Changes in Social and Institutional Factors - Conservative and rigid social and institutional set up
like joint family system, caste system, traditional values of life, irrational behavior etc. put severe
obstacle on the path of economic development and also retards its pace.

Thus to bring social and institutional change as per changing environment and to realize the modern
values of life are very much important for accelerating the pace of economic development in a
country.

4. Proper Maintenance of Law and Order - Maintenance of law and order in a proper manner also
helps the country to attain economic development at a quicker pace. Stability, peace, protection
from external aggression and legal protection generally raises morality, initiative and
entrepreneurship.

Formulation of proper monetary and fiscal policy by an efficient government can provide necessary
climate for increased investment and also can stimulate capital formation in the country.

Thus in order to accelerate the pace of economic development the government must make necessary
arrangement for the maintenance of law and order.
But the economy of underdeveloped countries is now facing serious threat from large scale disorder,
terrorism, disturbances in the international border etc. In such a chaotic situation, capital formation
process, business initiatives and enterprise of private firms are seriously suffered and distorted leading
to a stagnation of economy.

5. Administrative Efficiency - Economic development of a country also demands existence of a

strong, honest, efficient and competent administrative machinery for the successful
implementation of government policies.

The existence of a weak, corrupt and inefficient administrative machinery leads the country into
chaos and disorder.

OBSTACLES OR CONSTRAINTS ON ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

Underdeveloped or developing countries are facing several constraints or obstacles. These obstacles
are:

Colonial Exploitation - In the initial part of their development process, most of the underdeveloped
countries were under foreign domination leading to the huge colonial exploitation by the foreign
rulers.

Foreign rulers converted these economies as primary producing countries engaged in the production
of raw materials only to be supplied to the ruler country at cheaper prices and also a potent market
for the sale of the manufacturing products produced by the ruler country.

Foreign capitalists mostly invested their capital on mining, oil drilling and plantation industries
where they exploited the domestic workers to the maximum extent and remitted their profit to their
parent country.

They have also destroyed small industries by adopting unfair competition which has put a huge
pressure on agriculture, disguised unemployment and poverty. After independence, these
underdeveloped countries had to face serious obstacles to break this deep rooted impasse of low level
equilibrium traps.

Market Imperfections - Market imperfections in the form of immobility of factors, price rigidity,
ignorance of market conditions, rigid social structure etc. have resulted in serious barriers to
economic development of underdeveloped countries. Due to these market imperfections, resources of
these countries mostly remain either unutilized or underutilized leading to factor disequilibrium.

Poor Rate of Savings and Investment - Another important obstacle or constraint faced by the
underdeveloped countries in their path of economic development is its poor rate of savings and
investment. In spite of their best attempt, the rate of savings of these underdeveloped countries
remained very low.

Vicious Circle of Poverty - Vicious circle in the underdeveloped countries represented by low
productivity is resulted from capital deficiency, market imperfections, economic backwardness and
poor development.

Low productivity results in low level of income and low rate of savings leading to low rate of
investment, which is again responsible for low rate of productivity.

Unsuitability in Adopting Modern Technology - Underdeveloped countries are facing peculiar

problem in respect of adopting modern and latest technology. Due to abundant labor supply and
scarcity of capital, such technologies become unsuitable for these countries.

At the same time the existing poor technology of these underdeveloped countries fails to raise the
rate of productivity and also to bring them out of the vicious circle of poverty.

Rapidly Growing Population - Most of the underdeveloped countries are facing the problem of
rapidly growing population which hinders its path of economic development. Viner has rightly
observed, “Population increase hovers like a menacing cloud over all poor countries.”

Rapidly growing population slows down the rate and process of capital formation. Growing
population increases the volume of consumption expenditure and fails to increase the rate of savings
and investment.

Over-population results poverty, inefficiency, poor quality of population, lower productivity, low per
capita income, unemployment and under-employment and finally leads the country toward under
development.

Inefficient Agricultural Sector - Another important obstacles or constraints to the path of

development of underdeveloped countries are its inefficient agricultural structure. Agriculture
dominates the economy of most of the underdeveloped countries. Agricultural sector in these
countries are suffering from primitive agricultural practices, lack of adequate inputs like fertilizers,
irrigation facilities, uneconomic holdings, defective land tenure and excessive dependence on
agriculture.

Inefficient Human Resources - Underdeveloped countries suffer from surplus labor force but shortage
of critical skills. Due to lack of adequate number of trained and skilled personnel, the production
system remains thoroughly backward.

Shortage of Entrepreneurial Ability, Modern Enterprise and Innovation - Underdeveloped countries

are also suffering from lack of adequate number of entrepreneurial ability. Naturally there is absence
of modern enterprise and proper managerial talent. Due to poor socio-cultural climate and weak
environment, the managerial talent in these countries fails to reach its desirable level.

Inadequate Infrastructural Facilities - Underdeveloped countries are suffering from lack of adequate
transportation and communication facilities, shortage of power supply, inadequate banking and
financial facilities and other social overheads which are considered very important for attaining
economic development.

Adverse International Forces - Certain adverse international forces are operating against the under-
developed countries which are always going against the interest of the underdeveloped countries.
International trade has forced the underdeveloped countries to become primary producing countries
where the terms of trade as well as the gains from trade have always gone against these
underdeveloped countries.

Political Instability - Most of the underdeveloped countries are facing the problem of political
instability resulting from frequent change of government, threats of external aggression and disturbed
internal law and order conditions. This type of political instability creates uncertainty about its future
steps and adversely affects the economic decisions.

Inappropriate Social Structure - Underdeveloped countries are suffering from backward social factors.
Inappropriate social forces impeding the economic development of underdeveloped countries include
prevalence of caste system, creating divergence between aptitudes, outdated beliefs etc.

All these economic, political and social factors are equally responsible for the poor socio-economic set
up of underdeveloped countries.

Economic growth enables the possibility to deal with many serious problems of poverty,
homelessness and lack of basic amenities. However there are several issues, which suggest that
economic growth, has contributed to serious social, environmental and economic problems, which
have reduced living standards. This is not to say economic growth is doomed to bring unhappiness. In
fact the challenge is to harness the potential of economic growth to make sure it really does increase
sustainable living standards.

Make sentences using these phrases and translate them from English into Georgian.

sustained growth from a simple economy to a modern one

_____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
relate to the causes of industrial-economic modernization
_____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
embrace improvements in a variety of indicators
_____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
literacy rates
_____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
life expectancy
_____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
serve as resource providers
_____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
cause and contribute to economic development
_____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
increase in disposable incomes
_____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
improvement in health and nutrition
_____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
social outcomes related to basic necessities
_____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
economic enhancement of societies
_____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
imply the increase in per capita income
_____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________

increase in national gross product

_____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
macroeconomic causes of long term economic growth
_____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
incentives of households and firms
_____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
generate increased or enhanced means of production
_____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
equitable distribution of resources
_____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
raise the per capita output with a scope for equitable distribution
_____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
related to consumers, tastes and preferences
_____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
introduction of new and more efficient production techniques
_____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
cause and consequences of economic development
_____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
determined by the time path and velocity of aforesaid changes
_____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
initiate and accelerate development
_____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
change in functional capacity
_____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
propensity to apply science to economic ends;
_____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
propensity to consume
_____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
human endowments, social attitude, political conditions and historical accidents
_____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
aptitude, abilities, qualities, capacities and facilities
_____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
provide labor and entrepreneurship
_____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
increasing mobility and division of labor
_____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
consumption requirements
_____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
growing momentum of economic development
_____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
affect individual motivation
_____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
attain higher level of development at a quicker pace
_____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
shortage of land
_____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
solid industrial base
_____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
deficiency in natural resources
_____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
stock of physical reproducible factors
_____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
apply activity to the needs and desires of immediate consumption
_____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
proper selection of industries as investment priorities
_____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
expansion of the scale of production
_____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
build various social and economic overhead infrastructural facilities
_____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
gradually transform outdated social and political institutions
_____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
put hindrances in the path of progress
_____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
mental urge for development
_____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
bear both sufferings
_____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
experimental outlook
_____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
associated with the spread of education
_____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
yield increasing returns
_____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
conservative and rigid social and institutional set up
_____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
provide necessary climate for increased investment
_____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
face serious threat from large scale disorder
_____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
administrative machinery
_____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
foreign domination
_____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
disguised unemployment
_____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
break deep rooted impasse of low level equilibrium traps
_____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
price rigidity
_____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
lead to disequilibrium
_____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
remain either unutilized or underutilized
_____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
poor rate of savings
_____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
capital deficiency, market imperfections and economic backwardness
_____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
unsuitability in adopting modern technology
_____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
abundant labor supply and scarcity of capital
_____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
bring out of the vicious circle of poverty
_____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
dominates the economy underdeveloped countries
_____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
fertilizers, irrigation facilities, uneconomic holdings, and defective land tenure
_____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
suffer from surplus labor force
_____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
shortage of critical skills
_____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
remain thoroughly backward
_____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
threats of external aggression and disturbed internal law and order conditions
_____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
impede the economic development
_____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
suffer from backward social factors
_____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
prevalence of caste system
_____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
divergence between aptitudes
_____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
lack of basic amenities
_____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
harness the potential of economic growth
_____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
increase sustainable living standards
_____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
UNIT 6. HUMAN RIGHTS

RIGHTS, NEEDS AND RESPONSIBILITIES

There is no precise definition of Human Rights. The Oxford Power Dictionary defines human rights
as the “basic freedom that all people should have”. The human rights ‘basically emerge out of human
needs and capabilities. In a simple language, human rights are meant for human beings to satisfy their
basic needs.

In a broader sense, the human rights are “those rights to which every man and woman inhabiting any
part of the world should be deemed entitled by virtue of having been born a human being”
(Kashyap). In other words, human rights are those rights which are essential for a dignified and a
decent human living as well as human existence and adequate development of human personality.

Human rights are held by all human beings and human rights exist as long as human beings exist.
Both are inalienable and cannot be separated. Precisely, human rights imply availability of “Such
conditions which are essential for the fullest development and realization of the innate characteristics
which nature has bestowed him/her with, as a human being”. They are essential to ensure the dignity
of every person as a human being.

Every human being, as a social being, lives in a group in the society. As an individual, he has a right
to life and right to a decent living. As a social being, and an inseparable part of the
society/community, he too has other rights, like: right to freedom of speech, expression, thought,
belief and faith and right to move freely. Thus, human rights are essential for the development of the
human personality in society, where he lives.

Human rights in general, may be of two types:

a. Rights which are essential for the dignified and decent human existence;
b. Rights which are essential for adequate development of human personality.

Rights under the first category include right to fulfillment of basic human needs like food, shelter,
clothing, health and sanitation, earning one’s live-hood and the like.

The second category of human rights comprises of right to freedom of speech and expression, cultural
and educational rights.

Human rights possess the following characteristics:

1. Inalienability - Both human beings and human rights are inalienable and inseparable. One
cannot stay without the other.
2. Comprehensiveness - Human rights are comprehensive. They include socio-economic, civil,
political and cultural rights which are relevant for a decent human living.
 3. Universality - Human rights are universally applicable to one and all. These are meant for all
individuals of all nations, without there being any discrimination on grounds of caste, class,
color, sex, creed, language and religion.
4. Justice ability - These rights are also justiciable.
5. Non-absoluteness - These rights are not absolute and there can be restriction imposed on
these.

The concept of human rights was further strengthened with the emergence of Magna Carta and Bill
of Rights, following the glorious Revolution of 1688. The basic concept of Locke’s theory of natural
rights was that the citizens have always a legitimate right to overthrow a Government if it failed to
protect the citizens’ rights.

Almost a century there after came the “American Declaration of Independence” which affirmed that
“all men are created equal” and that they are assured of several inalienable rights like “right to life,
liberty and the pursuit of happiness”.

Nearly a decade later the famous “French Declaration of Rights of men and citizens” came as an
outcome of the French Revolution. It proclaimed in all clear terms that “men are born free” and they
remain “free and equal in the enjoyment of rights of liberty, property, security” and resistance to
oppression.

Recognition of the equal and inalienable rights of all members of the human family is the foundation
of freedom, justice and peace all over the world. In brief, every individual has been ensured of “a
dignified living free from brutality”.

The Universal Declaration of Human Rights has guaranteed two broad categories of rights — such as:
a. Civil and Political Rights;
b. Socio-economic and Cultural Rights.

Civil and Political Rights include:

1. Right to life, liberty and security of persons;
2. Right to freedom from slavery and servitude;
3. Right to freedom from inhuman torture or punishment;
4. Right, without decimation, to Equality of Persons before law, equal protection of law, right to
judicial remedies, and right to freedom from arbitrary arrest, detention or exile;
5. Right to fair trial;
6. Right to freedom of thought, expression, belief, faith, conscience and religion;
7. Right to freedom of speech and expression and peaceful assembly;
8. Right to take in government affairs, and equal access to public service, right to vote;
9. Right to freedom of movement and right of asylum;
10. Right to Nationality.
Socio-economic and Cultural Rights cover:
1. Right to work, equal pay for equal work and right to form trade unions;
2. Right to social security during old age, sickness, widowhood and unemployment;
3. Right to marry and have family and right to property;
4. Right to preserve and propagate one’s culture;
5. Right to food, health and adequate standard of living;
6. Right to rest and leisure;
7. Right to participate in cultural life.

An International Conference on Human Rights was held in Vienna in June, 1993 to deal with new
emerging issue like a. Universality of human rights and b. Application of non-selective standard.

An extract from the document agreed upon in the Vienna Conference is given below:

“All human beings are universal, indivisible, interdependent and interrelated. The International
Community must treat human rights globally in a fair and equal manner on the same footing and
with the same emphasis.

While significance of national and regional particularities and various historical, cultural and
religious backgrounds must be born in mind, it is the duty of the state regardless of their political,
economic and cultural system to promote and protect all human rights and fundamental freedoms”.

The scope of right to equality and the right to life and personal liberty have caused wider areas like
right to speedy trial, free legal aid, right to live with dignity, right to earn livelihood, right to
education, housing, medical care, clean environment, right against fortune, sexual harassment,
solitary confinement, bondage, servitude exploitation and the like.

Human rights are inherent to all human beings, whatever nationality, place of residence, sex, national
or ethnic origin, color, language, or any other status. We are all equally entitled to our human rights
without discrimination. These rights are interrelated, interdependent and indivisible.

To protect human rights is to ensure that people receive some degree of decent, humane treatment.
Because political systems that protect human rights are thought to reduce the threat of world conflict,
all nations have a stake in promoting worldwide respect for human rights. International human rights
law, humanitarian intervention law and refugee law all protect the right to life and physical integrity
and attempt to limit the unrestrained power of the state. These laws aim to preserve humanity and
protect against anything that challenges people's health, economic well-being, social stability and
political peace. Underlying such laws is the principle of nondiscrimination, the notion that rights
apply universally.

Responsibility to protect human rights resides first and foremost with the states themselves.
However, in many cases public authorities and government officials institute policies that violate
basic human rights. Such abuses of power by political leaders and state authorities have devastating
effects, including genocide, war crimes and crimes against humanity. What can be done to safeguard
human rights when those in power are responsible for human rights violations? Can outside forces
intervene in order to protect human rights?

In some cases, the perceived need to protect human rights and maintain peace has led to
humanitarian intervention. There is evidence that internationally we are moving towards the notion
that governments have not only a negative duty to respect human rights, but also a positive duty to
safeguard these rights, preserve life and protect people from having their rights violated by others.
Many believe that states' duties to intervene should not be determined by proximity, but rather by
the severity of the crisis.

There are two kinds of humanitarian intervention involving the military: unilateral interventions by
a single state, and collective interventions by a group of states. Because relatively few states have
sufficient force and capacity to intervene on their own, most modern interventions are collective.

There is much disagreement about when and to what extent outside countries can engage in such
interventions. More specifically, there is debate about the efficacy of using military force to protect
the human rights of individuals in other nations. This sort of debate stems largely from a tension
between state sovereignty and the rights of individuals. Some defend the principles of state
sovereignty and nonintervention, and argue that other states must be permitted to determine their
own course.

This argument suggests that different states have different conceptions of justice, and international
coexistence depends on a pluralist ethic whereby each state can uphold its own conception of the
good. Among this group, there is "a profound skepticism about the possibilities of realizing notions of
universal justice." States that presume to judge what counts as a violation of human rights in another
nation interfere with that nation's right to self-determination. Suspicions are further raised by the
inconsistent respect for sovereignty.

In addition, requiring some country to respect human rights is liable to cause friction and can lead to
far-reaching disagreements. Thus, acts of intervention may disrupt interstate order and lead to
further conflict. Even greater human suffering might thereby result if states set aside the norm of
nonintervention.

Others point out that humanitarian intervention does not, in principle, threaten the territorial
integrity and political independence of states. Rather than aiming to destabilize a target state and
meddle in its affairs, humanitarian intervention aims to restore rule of law and promote humane
treatment of individuals.
Furthermore, people who advocate this approach maintain that only the vigilant eye of the
international community can ensure the proper observance of international standards, in the interest
not of one state or another but of the individuals themselves. They maintain that massive violations
of human rights, such as genocide and crimes against humanity, warrant intervention, even if it
causes some tension or disagreement. Certain rights are inalienable and universal, and taking basic
rights seriously means taking responsibility for their protection everywhere.

If, through its atrocious actions, a state destroys the lives and rights of its citizens, it temporarily
forfeits its claims to legitimacy and sovereignty. Outside governments then have a positive duty to
take steps to protect human rights and preserve lives. In addition, it is thought that political systems
that protect human rights reduce the threat of world conflict. Thus, intervention might also be
justified on the ground of preserving international security, promoting justice and maintaining
international order.

Nevertheless, governments are often reluctant to commit military forces and resources to defend
human rights in other states. In addition, the use of violence to end human rights violations poses a
moral dilemma insofar as such interventions may lead to further loss of innocent lives. Therefore, it is
imperative that the least amount of force necessary to achieve humanitarian objectives be used, and
that intervention not do more harm than good. Lastly, there is a need to ensure that intervention is
legitimate, and motivated by genuine humanitarian concerns. The purposes of intervention must be
apolitical and disinterested. However, if risks and costs of intervention are high, it is unlikely that
states will intervene unless their own interests are involved. For this reason, some doubt whether
interventions are ever driven by humanitarian concerns rather than self-interest.

Many note that in order to truly address human rights violations, we must strive to understand the
underlying causes of these breaches. These causes have to do with underdevelopment, economic
pressures, social problems and international conditions. Indeed, the roots of repression,
discrimination and other denials of human rights stem from deeper and more complex political, social
and economic problems. It is only by understanding and ameliorating these root causes and
strengthening both democracy and civil society that we can truly protect human rights.

In the aftermath of conflict, violence and suspicion often persist. Government institutions and the
judiciary, which bear the main responsibility for the observation of human rights, are often severely
weakened by the conflict or complicit in it. Yet, a general improvement in the human rights situation
is essential for rehabilitation of war-torn societies. Many argue that healing the psychological scars
caused by atrocities and reconciliation at the community level cannot take place if the truth about
past crimes is not revealed and if human rights are not protected. To preserve political stability,
human rights implementation must be managed effectively. Issues of mistrust and betrayal must be
addressed, and the rule of law must be restored. In such an environment, the international
community can often play an important supporting role in providing at least implicit guarantees that
former opponents will not abandon the peace. Because all international norms are subject to cultural
interpretation, external agents that assist in the restoration of human rights in post-conflict societies
must be careful to find local terms with which to express human rights norms. While human rights
are in theory universal, ideas about which basic needs should be guaranteed vary according to
cultural, political, economic and religious circumstances. Consequently, policies to promote and
protect human rights must be culturally adapted to avoid distrust and perceptions of intrusion into
internal affairs.

To promote human rights standards in post-conflict societies, many psychological issues must be
addressed. Societies must either introduce new social norms or reestablish old moral standards. They
must design programs that will both address past injustice and prevent future human rights
violations. Human rights must not become just another compartmentalized aspect of recovery, but
must be infused throughout all peacebuilding and reconstruction activities. Democratization implies
the restoration of political and social rights. Government officials and members of security and police
forces have to be trained to observe basic rights in the execution of their duties. Finally, being able to
forgive past violations is central to society's reconciliation.

As violent conflict begins to subside, peacekeeping strategies to physically separate disputants and
prevent further violence are crucial. These measures, together with violence prevention mechanisms,
can help to safeguard human lives. Limiting the use of violence is crucial to ensuring groups' survival
and creating the necessary conditions for a return to peace.

Education about human rights must become part of general public education. Technical and financial
assistance should be provided to increase knowledge about human rights. Members of the police and
security forces have to be trained to ensure the observation of human rights standards for law
enforcement.

Dialogue groups that assemble people from various ethnicities should be organized to overcome
mistrust, fear and grief in society. Getting to know the feelings of ordinary people of each side might
help to change the demonic image of the enemy group. Dialogue also helps parties at the grassroots
level to discover the truth about what has happened, and may provide opportunities for apology and
forgiveness.

Specialists can offer legislative assistance and provide guidance in drafting press freedom laws,
minority legislation and laws securing gender equality. They can also assist in drafting a constitution,
which guarantees fundamental political and economic rights.

Humanitarian aid and development assistance seeks to ease the impact that violent conflict has on
civilians. During conflict, the primary aim is to prevent human casualties and ensure access to basic
survival needs. These basics include water, sanitation, food, shelter and health care. Aid can also assist
those who have been displaced and support rehabilitation work. Once conflict has ended,
development assistance helps to advance reconstruction programs that rebuild infrastructure,
institutions and the economy. This assistance helps countries to undergo peaceful development rather
than sliding back into conflict.

Those who perpetrate human rights violations find it much easier to do so in cases where their
activities can remain secret. International witnesses, observers and reporters can exert modest
pressure to bring violations of human rights to public notice and discourage further violence.
Monitors should not only expose violations, but also make the public aware of any progress made in
the realization of human rights. In order to ensure that proper action is taken after the results of
investigations have been made public, effective mechanisms to address injustice must be in place.

The expansion of international human rights law has often not been matched by practice. Yet, there
is growing consensus that the protection of human rights is important for the resolution of conflict
and to the rebuilding process afterward. To achieve these goals, the international community has
identified a number of mechanisms both to bring an end to human rights abuses and to establish an
environment in which they will be respected in the future. They are not alternatives, but each
provides important benefits in dealing with the past and envisioning a brighter future.

Make sentences using these phrases and translate them from English into Georgian.

emerge out of human needs and capabilities

_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
essential for a dignified and a decent human living
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
realization of the innate characteristics
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
right to fulfillment of basic human needs
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
inalienable and inseparable
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
universally applicable to one and all
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
legitimate right to overthrow a Government
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
resistance to oppression
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
right to freedom from slavery and servitude;
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
right to freedom from inhuman torture or punishment
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
right to judicial remedies
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
right to freedom from arbitrary arrest, detention or exile
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
right to fair trial
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
right to social security during old age, sickness, widowhood and unemployment
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
right to preserve and propagate one’s culture
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
application of non-selective standard
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
right to speedy trial, free legal aid
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
right to earn livelihood
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
right against sexual harassment, solitary confinement, bondage and servitude exploitation
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
inherent to all human beings
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
interrelated, interdependent and indivisible
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
receive some degree of decent, humane treatment
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
have a stake in promoting worldwide respect for human rights
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
attempt to limit the unrestrained power of the state
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
have devastating effects
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
safeguard human rights
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
humanitarian intervention
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
determined by proximity
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
severity of the crisis
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
efficacy of using military force
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
inconsistent respect for sovereignty
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
cause friction
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
disrupt interstate order
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
threaten territorial integrity and political independence
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
restore rule of law
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
ensure proper observance of international standards
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
motivated by genuine humanitarian concerns
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
driven by humanitarian concerns rather than self-interest
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
war-torn societies
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
reconciliation at the community level
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
norms are subject to cultural interpretation
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
avoid distrust and perceptions of intrusion into internal affairs
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
address past injustice and prevent future human rights violations
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
peacebuilding and reconstruction activities
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
reestablish old moral standards
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
compartmentalized aspect of recovery
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
law enforcement
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
provide opportunities for apology and forgiveness
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
offer legislative assistance
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
provide guidance in drafting press freedom laws
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
laws securing gender equality
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
slide back into conflict
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
prevent human casualties
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
perpetrate human rights violations
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
exert modest pressure
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
discourage further violence
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
end to human rights abuses
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
envision a brighter future
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________