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Chllenge New Psycho PDF
Chllenge New Psycho PDF
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2013
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Acknowledgements
This report was produced by the Laboratory and Scientific Section (headed by Justice Tettey) under the
supervision of Sandeep Chawla, Director, Division for Policy Analysis and Public Affairs.
Core team: Beate Hammond (coordination), Conor Crean, Sabrina Levissianos, Deniz Mermerci , Tun Nay Soe,
Takako Otani, Meejung Park, Diego Pazos, Kristal Piñeros, Akara Umapornsakula, Yen Ling Wong.
The report also benefited from the work and expertise of many other UNODC staff in Vienna and in field offices
around the world.
UNODC would like to specifically acknowledge the Government of Japan for providing funding that made it
possible to prepare this report.
UNODC reiterates its appreciation and gratitude to Member States and to the drug analysis laboratories that
form part of the UNODC International Collaborative Exercise network for the reports and information that
provided the basis of this report as well as to the International Narcotics Control Board (INCB) and the European
Monitoring Centre on Drugs and Drug Addiction (EMCDDA).
UNODC would also like to thank Dr. Kalman Szendrei for comments provided on an earlier draft of this report.
DISCLAIMER
The publication has not been formally edited. The boundaries, names and designations used in all maps do not
imply official endorsement or acceptance by the United Nations.
1. INTRODUCTION ..............................................................................................................................1
1.1 Emergence of new psychoactive substances ........................................................................................... 1
1.2 Definition and categories of new psychoactive substances ..................................................................... 1
References ..................................................................................................................................................... 99
The Global SMART Programme
UNODC launched the Global Synthetics Monitoring: It constitutes the first step in providing consolidated
Analyses, Reporting and Trends (SMART) Programme up to-date analysis, based primarily on the information
in September 2008. The Programme seeks to enhance shared by Member States and the International
the capacity of Member States and authorities in Collaborative Exercise network of drug analysis
priority regions, to generate, manage, analyse and laboratories. It is hoped that the information on
report synthetic drug information, and to apply new psychoactive substances presented in this report
this scientific evidence-based knowledge to design will make a practical contribution to addressing the
the policies and programmes. The Global SMART significant threat posed by the manufacture, trafficking
Programme is being implemented in a gradual phased and use of these substances throughout the world, and
manner, with East Asia being the first focus priority place policymakers in a better position to evaluate the
region. Operations in Latin America started in 2011. drug situation, and to make informed decisions on
intervention and prevention strategies.
This report is the first global situation assessment
on new psychoactive substances put forward under This report provides an overview of the situation
the Global SMART Programme and pursuant to throughout the world. It outlines the emergence of
Commission on Narcotic Drugs Resolution 55/1 on different groups of new psychoactive substances in the
“Promoting international cooperation in responding regions and highlights several key issues associated
to the challenges posed by new psychoactive with these substances, including reported adverse
substances”, which requested the United Nations effects associated with their use, the challenges for
Office on Drugs and Crime to provide an update to the identification of these substances and their
its 2011 report entitled “Synthetic cannabinoids in subsequent control through legislation. While the
herbal products”, addressing a wider range of new information presented points towards increasing
psychoactive substances, in addition to synthetic efforts by the countries to address the NPS problem,
cannabinoids, and to take into consideration the it also highlights the need for continued and joint
creation of a compilation of new psychoactive efforts, both at the national as well as regional levels.
substances encountered by Member States, to serve as It is hoped that this report will contribute to a better
an early warning advisory. understanding of the NPS problem and in developing
effective strategies to address it.
i
Abbreviations
2-AI 2-Aminoindane
3-MeO-PCE 3-Methoxyeticyclidine
4-AcO-DiPT 4-Acetoxy-N,N-diisopropyltryptamine
4-AcO-DMT 4-Acetoxy-N,N-dimethyltryptamine
4-FA 4-Fluoroamphetamine
4-FMA 4-Fluoromethamphetamine
4-MeO-PCP 4-methoxyphencyclidine
5-APB 5-(2-Aminopropyl)benzofuran
5-HTP 5-Hydroxytryptophan
5-IAI 5-Iodo-2-aminoindane
5-MeO-DALT 5-Methoxy-N,N-diallyltryptamine
5-MeO-DMT 5-Methoxy-N,N-dimethyltryptamine
5-MeO-DPT 5-Methoxy-N,N-dipropyltryptamine
6-APB 6-(2-Aminopropyl)benzofuran
Į-PPP Į-Pyrrolidinopropiophenone
Į-PVP Į-Pyrrolidinopentiophenone
ARQ UNODC Annual Reports Questionnaire
ATS Amphetamine-type stimulants
BCS British Crime Survey (UK)
BZP Benzylpiperazine
‘CP’ compounds cyclohexylphenols or 3-arylcyclohexanols
CSA Controlled Substances Act (USA)
DAINAP Drug Abuse Information Network for Asia and the Pacific
DEA Drug Enforcement Administration (USA)
DET 3-[2-(diethylamino)ethyl]indole
DOB Brolamphetamine
DOC 2,5-dimethoxy-4-chloroamphetamine
DOI 2,5-dimethoxy-4-iodoamphetamine
DOM / STP 2,5-dimethoxy-alpha,4-dimethylphenethylamine
EACD Expert Advisory Committee on Drugs (New Zealand)
EDND European database on new drugs
EDRS Ecstasy and Related Drugs Reporting System (Australia)
EMCDDA European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction
EMEA European Agency for the Evaluation of Medicinal Products
ETAI N-Ethyl-5-trifluoromethyl-2-aminoindane
EU European Union
EUROPOL European Police Office
FTIR Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy
GC-MS Gas chromatography - mass spectrometry
GHB Gamma-hydroxybutyrate
HPLC High performance liquid chromatography
ICE International Collaborative Exercises
INCB International Narcotics Control Board
LC–MS Liquid chromatography–mass spectrometry
LSD d-lysergic acid
MBZP 1-Benzyl-4-methylpiperazine
ii
mCPP 1-(3-Chlorophenyl)piperazine
MDA 3,4-methylenedioxyamphetamine
MDAI 5,6-Methylenedioxy-2-aminoindane
MDBP Methylenedioxybenzylpiperazines
MDE N-ethyl-Į-methyl-3,4-(methylenedioxy)phenethylamine
MDMA 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine
MDMAI 5,6-Methylenedioxy-N-methyl-2-aminoindane
MDPV 3,4-Methylenedioxypyrovalerone
Mephedrone (4-MMC) 4-methylmethcathinone
MMAI 5-Methoxy-6-methyl-2-aminoindane
NFLIS National Forensic Laboratory Information System
NMR Nuclear magnetic resonance
NPS New Psychoactive Substances
np-SAD National Programme on Substance Abuse Deaths (UK)
NTA National Treatment Agency for Substances Misuse (UK)
PCE Eticyclidine
PCP Phencyclidine
pFPP 1-(4-Fluorophenyl)piperazine
PHP/PCPY Rolicyclidine
PMA p-methoxy-alpha-methylphenethylamine
PMMA 1-(4-methoxyphenyl)-2-methylaminopropane
SMART Global Synthetics Monitoring: Analyses, Reporting and Trends
TAI 5-trifluoromethyl-2-aminoindane
TCP Tenocyclidine
TFMPP 1-(3-Trifluoromethylphenyl)piperazine
THC Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol
UK United Kingdom
US United States of America
UNODC United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime
WHO World Health Organization
YSS Youth Smoking Survey (Canada)
iii
Notes to the reader Data time frame – The statistical data contained in
this report cover the 2009-2012 period, except in
instances where a longer historical frame is necessary
This report has not been formally edited. to provide a clear explanation of emergence and use of
new psychoactive substances. Data for 2012 should be
The designations employed and the presentation considered preliminary as the UNODC questionnaire
of the material in this publication do not imply the on NPS was circulated in July 2012. Data are subject
expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of to change for a variety of reasons, such as new or late
the Secretariat of the United Nations concerning the data being added or revisions in data already provided
legal status of any country, territory, city or area or by Member States. Thus, some figure may differ from
of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of previously published figures. All data reported herein
its frontiers or boundaries. Countries and areas are reflect the most up-to-date and precise information
referred to by the names that were in official use at the available at the time of publication.
time the relevant data were collected.
Symbols – In the tables throughout this report arrows
The following notes describe certain terms, regional indicate an increase or decrease in the trend of use or
designations, data sources and timeframes used availability of a specified new psychoactive substance
throughout this document. during the previous year - (Ĺ) an increase, (Ļ) a decrease,
(ļ) a stable and (-) indicates that the information is
NPS – New psychoactive substances are substances not available, not known, or was not reported.
of abuse, either in a pure form or a preparation, that
are not controlled by the 1961 Single Convention on Terms – Since there is some scientific and legal
Narcotic Drugs or the 1971 Convention on Psycho- ambiguity about the distinctions between drug ‘use’,
tropic Substances, but which may pose a public health ‘misuse’ and ‘abuse’, this report uses the neutral terms,
threat. In this context, the term ‘new’ does not neces- drug ‘use’ or ‘consumption’.
sarily refer to new inventions but to substances that
have been recently become available. Country names and geographical names – In
various sections, this report uses a number of regional
Data sources – Unless indicated specifically, data designations. These are not official designations. They
contained in this report draws upon official sources are defined as follows:
as reported in the UNODC questionnaire on new
psychoactive substances by Member States and by Africa
the International Collaborative Exercise network
of drug analysis laboratories, data reported in the Algeria, Angola, Benin, Botswana, Burkina Faso,
UNODC Annual Reports Questionnaire (ARQ) by Burundi, Cameroon, Cape Verde, Central African
Member States, annual and technical reports of official Republic, Chad, Comoros, Congo, Democratic
government and inter-governmental entities (e.g. Republic of Congo, Côte d’Ivoire, Djibouti, Egypt,
Europol, EMCDDA, World Health Organization, Equatorial Guinea, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Gabon, Gambia,
UNODC reports) and scientific literature. Ghana, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Kenya, Lesotho,
Liberia, Libya, Madagascar, Malawi, Mali, Mauritania,
Annexes – Any compound or substance reported Mauritius, Morocco, Mozambique, Namibia, Niger,
through the UNODC questionnaire on new Nigeria, Rwanda, Sao Tome and Principe, Senegal,
psychoactive substances under control in the Seychelles, Sierra Leone, Somalia, South Africa, South
international drug control conventions or whose name Sudan, Sudan, Swaziland, Togo, Tunisia Uganda,
was not provided in full or only as an analogue without United Republic of Tanzania, Zambia and Zimbabwe.
further indication was excluded from the annexes to
this report. Individual reports on active ingredients Americas
of plant-based substances were merged with the
corresponding plant/herb. Substances with several Antigua and Barbuda, Argentina, Bahamas, Barbados,
positional isomers in which the specific isomer was not Belize, Bermuda, Bolivia (Plurinational State of ),
indicated were merged into the generic compound. Brazil, Canada, Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, Cuba,
Dominica, Dominican Republic, Ecuador, El Salvador,
iv
Grenada, Guatemala, Guyana, Haiti, Honduras,
Jamaica, Mexico, Nicaragua, Panama, Paraguay, Peru,
Saint Kitts and Nevis, Saint Lucia, Saint Vincent and
the Grenadines, Suriname, Trinidad and Tobago,
United States of America, Uruguay and Venezuela
(Bolivarian Republic of ).
Asia
Europe
Oceania
v
Background synthetic cannabinoids, and to take into consideration
the creation of a compilation of new psychoactive
substances encountered by Member States, to serve as
The amphetamine-type stimulants (ATS) market an early warning advisory”.
has always been characterized by a large variety of
substances. However, in recent years, new psychoactive This report was prepared pursuant to resolution
substances (NPS) have rapidly emerged in this market 55/1. Its aim is to provide an overview of the main
purportedly as “legal” alternatives to internationally groups of new psychoactive substances present in
controlled drugs, causing similar effects to the latter, illicit ATS markets, their chemistry, mode of use
with the potential to pose serious risks to public health and reported adverse effects associated with their
and safety. The fast-paced nature of this market, the use. It reflects the situation as of February 2013 and
increased availability of these substances and the provides information about the emergence of NPS,
reports of increased and emerging use of and trade the prevalence of use, the origins of these substances
in such substances have drawn concerns among the and the different approaches in regulation that have
international community as there is the potential for been taken by some Governments. It finally suggests
transnational organized criminal groups to exploit the ways that could be potentially used to detect, identify
market for these substances. and monitor NPS, in order to facilitate States making
effective evidence-based decisions to counteract the
As a response, the Commission on Narcotic Drugs, challenges posed by such substances.
recalling its resolution 48/1 of 11 March 2005 on
promoting the sharing of information on emerging
trends in the abuse of and trafficking in substances
not controlled under the international drug control
Methodology
conventions, and noting the increasing number of The information and data presented in this report
reports about the production of synthetic cannabinoids were obtained primarily through an electronic
in herbal products, adopted resolution 53/11 of 12 questionnaire on NPS, which was sent to all Member
March 2010, on promoting the sharing of information States as well as to the drug analysis laboratories
on the potential abuse of and trafficking in synthetic that participate in the UNODC International
cannabinoid receptor agonists. In that resolution, the Collaborative Exercises (ICE) in July 2012. The
Commission requested the United Nations Office on questionnaire covered a wide spectrum of issues
Drugs and Crime to “share information on the issue related to NPS, inter alia, legislation, seizures of
of cannabinoid receptor agonists with the Expert NPS, substances detected and analyzed, identification
Committee on Drug Dependence of the World of NPS, sources, trafficking, distribution and the use
Health Organization to increase its understanding and of NPS. Additional information was obtained from
awareness of the issue”. Pursuant to this resolution, Government reports, scientific literature and data
UNODC prepared the 2011 report “Synthetic extracted from the UNODC ICE Portal.
cannabinoids in herbal products”.1
1
8QLWHG1DWLRQV2IÀFHRQ'UXJVDQG&ULPH¶6\QWKHWLFFDQQDELQRLGVLQ
KHUEDOSURGXFWV·9LHQQD
vi
Introduction
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 Emergence of new psychoactive sub- 1990s.2 Other NPS such as those belonging to the fam-
stances ily of phenethylamines and piperazines appeared in the
market through the 1990s and at the beginning of the
New psychoactive substances that fall outside interna- 2000s respectively.3 From 2004 onwards synthetic can-
tional drug control conventions are not a novel phe- nabinoids such as ‘spice’, started to be seen in the mar-
nomenon. Many of these substances were synthesized ket, followed by synthetic cathinones and other emerg-
and patented in the early 1970s or even earlier, but ing groups of NPS, as identified in this report.
only recently their chemistry or process of synthesis
have been slightly modified to produce effects similar 'H¿QLWLRQ DQG FDWHJRULHV RI QHZ
to known illicit substances. psychoactive substances
NPS have been known in the market by terms such For the purposes of this document, NPS are defined as
as ‘designer drugs’, ‘legal highs’, ‘herbal highs’, ‘bath “substances of abuse, either in a pure form or a prepa-
salts’. The term ‘designer drugs’ had been tradition- ration, that are not controlled by the 1961 Conven-
ally used to identify synthetic substances but has re- tion on Narcotic Drugs or the 1971 Convention on
cently been broadened to include other psychoactive Psychotropic Substances, but which may pose a public
substances that mimic the effects of illicit drugs and health threat”. In this context, the term ‘new’ does not
are produced by introducing slight modifications to necessarily refer to new inventions but to substances
the chemical structure of controlled substances to cir- that have recently become available.
cumvent drug controls. ‘Legal highs’, ‘herbal highs’,
‘research chemicals’ and ‘bath salts’ are also common The information and analysis of NPS presented throu-
names used to refer to NPS offered as a legal alter- ghout this report is based on the identification of six
native to controlled drugs. These substances are fre- main groups of substances present in this market, i.e.
quently labelled as ‘not for human consumption’. synthetic cannabinoids, synthetic cathinones, ketamine,
phenethylamines, piperazines, plant-based substances,
Over the last decade these substances have been in- and a seventh group of miscellaneous substances that
troduced in ATS markets through various modes of contain recently identified NPS which do not fit into
distribution, including the Internet, ‘head’ or ‘smart the aforementioned groups.
shops’ which sell drug paraphernalia, or street-level
drug traffickers as legal alternatives to illicit drugs, ac- Given the almost infinite possibilities of altering struc-
counting for an increasingly significant share of illicit
drug markets in some countries and becoming a mat-
2
ter of great concern and a threat to public health. European Monitoring Center for Drugs and Drug Addiction, ‘Report
on the risk assessment of ketamine in the framework of the joint ac-
tion on new synthetic drugs’, Belgium, 2002
Ketamine is one of the oldest NPS. Its abuse was rec- 3
)RU LQVWDQFH %HQ]\OSLSHUD]LQH %=3 ZDV ÀUVW VROG FRPPHUFLDOO\ DV
ognized in the United States since the beginning of an alternative and a legal drug in New Zealand around the year 2000.
Bassindale, T., ‘Benzylpiperazine: the New Zealand legal perspective’,
the 1980s and started to be noticed in Europe in the 'UXJ7HVWLQJDQG$QDO\VLV%=3ZDVÀUVWQRWHGLQ
Europe around 2004
1
Global SMART Programme 2013
2
Main New Psychoactive Substances Encountered In Illicit ATS Markets And Their Effects
Many of the substances that are available on the mar- ered to have a potency of at least 100 times more than
ket for NPS contain unfamiliar molecules that may THC. Due to its similar chemical structure to THC,
or may not share similar risk effects and profiles to ‘HU-210’ is regarded as a ‘classical cannabinoid’ and
the illicit substances they are designed to mimic. As a has been found in synthetic cannabinoids sold in the
result, they may pose serious challenges to researchers United States and other countries.
and policy-makers that try to assess the risk of harm
and to take appropriate measures to control them. Non-classical cannabinoids include cyclohexylphe-
nols or 3-arylcyclohexanols (‘CP’compounds). ‘CP’
Research on most NPS is very limited. There are no compounds were developed as potential analgesics by
comprehensive scientific studies on their toxicity a pharmaceutical company in the 1980s. Respondents
and most studies are based on work in animals, fa- to the UNODC questionnaire on NPS have reported
tal poisonings in humans or clinical observations in
intoxicated patients. Toxicity, abuse liability and risks
associated with long-term use in particular remain un-
known. Most NPS have little or no history of medical OH
use. H
3
Global SMART Programme 2013
OH
OH
R2
R3
R4
R1
B C D
Generic chemical structure of non-classical cannabinoids and aminoalkylindoles: generic chemical structure of synthetic
non-classical cannabinoids (A), and three groups of aminoalkylindoles, i.e. naphthoylindoles (B), phenacetylindoles (C),
and benzoylindoles (D). Many cannabinoid derivatives and analogues could be synthesized by the addition of a halogen,
alkyl, alkoxy or other substituent to one of the aromatic ring systems. Other small changes, such as variations of the length
and configuration of the alkyl chain, can also be made to synthesize other compounds.
the emergence of CP-47,497 and CP-47,497-C8 in teractions by Professor John William Huffman6 and
numerous countries in all regions except Africa since his team in the United States.
2009.
While cannabis and THC are controlled under the in-
Other structurally dissimilar varieties of synthetic ternational drug control treaties, none of the synthetic
cannabinoids unrelated to THC have also emerged on cannabinoids are under international control. However,
the market. These include aminoalkylindoles, such as several have been subject to control measures at the na-
naphtoylindoles (e.g. JWH-018), phenylacetylindoles tional level. Respondents to the 2012 UNODC survey
(e.g. JWH-250), and benzoylindoles (e.g. AM-2233).5 on NPS identified JWH-018 as the most widespread
JWH-018, arguably the best known synthetic can- synthetic cannabinoid, followed by JWH-073, JWH-
nabinoid, belongs to the group of aminoalkylindoles 250 and JWH-081, all of which are aminoalkylindoles.
and is considered to be three times as potent as THC.
The JWH-compounds had been previously developed 6
John W. Huffman is a US chemist and a retired professor of organic
as test compounds in the research of receptor-drug in- FKHPLVWU\DW&OHPVRQ8QLYHUVLW\LQWKH8QLWHG6WDWHVZKRVHUHVHDUFK
led to the synthesis of non-cannabinoid cannabimimetrics in the
V'U+XIIPDQ·VUHVHDUFKJURXSIRFXVHVRQWKHV\QWKHVLVRI DQD-
5
8QLWHG1DWLRQV2IÀFHRQ'UXJVDQG&ULPH¶6\QWKHWLFFDQQDELQRLGV ORJXHVDQGPHWDEROLWHVRI 7+&ZLWKWKHDLPWRGHYHORSQHZSKDU-
in herbal products’, Vienna, 2011, 5; see also Hudson, S., Ramsey, J., PDFHXWLFDOSURGXFWVIRUPHGLFDOWUHDWPHQW¶-RKQ+XIIPDQ·&OHPVRQ
¶7KHHPHUJHQFHDQGDQDO\VLVRI V\QWKHWLFFDQQDELQRLGV·'UXJ7HVW- 8QLYHUVLW\ KWWSZZZFOHPVRQHGXFKHPLVWU\SHRSOHKXIIPDQ
ing and Analysis, 2011, 3, 466–478 html; accessed in: October 2012)
4
Main New Psychoactive Substances Encountered In Illicit ATS Markets And Their Effects
Description those seen with cannabis abuse were also linked to the
use of synthetic cannabinoids.11 An analysis of synthetic
Most synthetic cannabinoids are functionally similar to cannabinoids in ‘spice-like’ herbal blends highlighted
THC. Synthetic cannabinoids are usually available in the increasing number of reports on suicides associated
powder form and are sold as ‘Spice Gold’, ‘Spice Silver’, with preceding use of these products.12
‘Spice Diamond’, ‘K2’, ‘Bliss’, ‘Black Mamba’, ‘Bombay
Blue’, ‘Blaze’, ‘Genie’, ‘Zohai’, ‘JWH -018, -073, -250’, 2.2. Synthetic cathinones
’Kronic’, ‘Yucatan Fire’, ‘Skunk’, ‘Moon Rocks’, ‘Mr. Smi-
ley’. They are usually smoked, but oral use has also been Background
reported. Labels on packages and actual constituents of
the product are often mismatched. Cathinone and its derivatives are closely related to the
phenethylamine family (which includes amphetamine
Reported adverse effects and methamphetamine), but with a lower potency
than the latter.13 They are characterised by the presence
While side effects of cannabis are well documented,7 of a β-keto group on the side chain of the phenethyl-
data on human toxicity related to the use of synthetic amines. Cathinone, the principal active ingredient in
cannabinoids remains limited. As with other NPS, the leaves of the khat plant (catha edulis), can be con-
products sold as synthetic cannabinoids often contain sidered as the prototype from which a range of syn-
several chemicals in different concentrations, mak- thetic cathinones have been developed.
ing it very difficult to determine substance-specific
effects. Available knowledge on the toxicity of these Synthetic cathinones appeared in drug markets in
compounds comes from scientific reports and clinical the mid 2000s. In 2005, methylone, an analogue of
observations. MDMA, was the first synthetic cathinone reported to
the European Monitoring Centre on Drugs and Drug
Health-related problems associated with the use of Addiction (EMCDDA). In 2007, reports of 4-methyl-
synthetic cannabinoids include cardiovascular prob- methcathinone (mephedrone) use emerged, first in Is-
lems and psychological disorders,8 and it appears that rael and then in other countries and regions, including
there may be carcinogenic potential with some of the Australia, Scandinavia, Ireland and the United King-
metabolites of the substances contained in these prod- dom.14 Mephedrone was reportedly first synthesized in
ucts.9 1929.15
A study published in 2011 on the severe toxicity fol- Typically, synthetic cathinones have an amphetamine-
lowing synthetic cannabinoid ingestion suggested that type analogue, i.e. cathinone, ephedrone, and methy-
JWH-018 could lead to seizures and tachyarrhythmia lone are structurally related to amphetamine, meth-
(irregular heartbeat).10 In a recent review of clinical re- amphetamine and MDMA respectively. However,
ports, addiction and withdrawal symptoms similar to little is known about the mechanism of action and the
potential harms of mephedrone, but it has been sug-
gested that mephedrone is likely to act in a similar way
7
)RU H[DPSOH LQ +DOO : 6RORZLM 1 ¶$GYHUVH HIIHFWV RI FDQQDELV· to other stimulants (e.g. cocaine, amphetamine and
7KH /DQFHW $VKWRQ & + ¶$GYHUVH HIIHFWV RI
cannabis and cannabinoids’, British Journal of Anaesthesia, 1999, 83
(4), 637-49
8
Müller, H., Huttner, H.B., Köhrmann, M., Wielopolski, J.E., Kornhu-
11
EHU-DQG6SHUOLQJ:¶3DQLFDWWDFNDIWHUVSLFHDEXVHLQSDWLHQWZLWK 9DUGDNRX , 3LVWRV & 6SLOLRSRXORX &+ ¶6SLFH GUXJV DV D QHZ
$'+'·3KDUPDFRSV\FKLDWU\0LU$2EDIHPL WUHQGPRGHRI DFWLRQLGHQWLÀFDWLRQDQGOHJLVODWLRQ·7R[LFRORJ\/HW-
$ <RXQJ $ DQG .DQH & ¶0\RFDUGLDO LQIDUFWLRQ DVVRFLDWHG ZLWK ter, 2010, 197, 157-162
12
use of the synthetic cannabinoid K2’, Jounal of Pediatrics, 2011, 128, Ludger, E., Krueger, K., Lindigkeit, R., Schiebel, HM., Beuerle, T.,
6, 1622-1627; Every-Palmer, S., ‘Synthetic cannabinoid JWH-018 and ¶6\QWKHWLFFDQQDELQRLGVLQ¶¶VSLFHOLNH··KHUEDOEOHQGVÀUVWDSSHDUDQFH
SV\FKRVLVDQH[SORUDWLYHVXG\·'UXJDQG$OFRKRO'HSHQGHQFH RI -:+ DQG UHFXUUHQFH RI -:+ RQ WKH *HUPDQ PDUNHW·
117 (2-3), 152-157 Forensic Science International, 2012, 222 (1), 216-222
13
9
/LQ&<:KHHORFN$00RULQ'%DOGZLQ50/HH0*7DII (XURSHDQ0RQLWRULQJ&HQWUHIRU'UXJVDQG'UXJ$GGLFWLRQ¶6\Q-
$3ORSSHU&%XFNSLWW$DQG5RKGH$¶7R[LFLW\DQGPHWDEROLVP WKHWLFFDWKLQRQHV·'UXJ3URÀOHVZZZHPFGGDHXURSDHX
14
RI PHWK\OQDSKWKDOHQHVFRPSDULVRQZLWKQDSKWKDOHQHDQG- Nitro- .HOO\-3¶&DWKLQRQHGHULYDWLYHV$UHYLHZRI WKHLUFKHPLVWU\SKDU-
naphthalene’, Toxicology, 2009, 260, 16-27 PDFRORJ\DQGWR[LFRORJ\·'UXJ7HVWLQJDQG$QDO\VLV
10
/DSRLQW--DPHV/30RUDQ&/1HOVRQ/6+RIIPDQ56 453
15
0RUDQ -+ ¶6HYHUH WR[LFLW\ IROORZLQJ V\QWKHWLF FDQQDELQRLG LQJHV- Saem de Burnaga Sanchez, J., ‘Sur un homologue de l’ephedrine’, Bul-
WLRQ·&OLQLFDO7R[LFRORJ\3KLODGHOSKLD OHWLQGHOD6RFLpWp&KLPLTXHGH)UDQFH
5
Global SMART Programme 2013
O O
H
NH2 N
CH3
O R1
A B N
R2
R4
CH2
H O R3
H
O N O N
CH3 CH3 E
O O
C D
Chemical structures of cathinone (A), mephedrone (B), MDMA (C) and methylone (D). Differences between controlled
substances (i.e. cathinone and MDMA) and synthetic derivatives of cathinones (i.e. mephedrone and methylone) are
highlighted in red. The molecular structure of generic cathinone derivatives is represented in structure (E). The ‘R’ groups
indicate locations of the molecule where modifications can occur to produce a wide range of cathinone derivatives.
6
Main New Psychoactive Substances Encountered In Illicit ATS Markets And Their Effects
cathinone derivatives under international drug control cardiovascular system.27 The first fatality related to
are amfepramone, methcathinone and pyrovalerone.24 the sole use of mephedrone, confirmed by toxicologi-
cal analysis, was reported in Sweden in 2008.28 Most
Description fatalities associated with the use of mephedrone in-
volved the use of other substances.29 Deaths associated
Synthetic cathinones are frequently found in products with the use of other synthetic cathinones include two
sold as ‘research chemicals’, ‘plant food’, ‘bath salts’ deaths related to methedrone30 and two other deaths
or ‘glass cleaner’ and are usually sold in powder, pill related to butylone.31
or capsule form. Mephedrone (‘m-cat’, ‘meph’, ‘drone’
or ‘miaow’) and methylone (‘explosion’ or ‘top cat’) are The Finnish Poisons Information Centre reported 33
usually available as white or brown powders or in the calls regarding exposures to MDPV during the pe-
form of pills that are often sold as ‘ecstasy’. Most syn- riod of January 2008 to October 2009. Post mortem
thetic derivatives are ingested but may be injected. toxicological analysis confirmed 6 deaths related to
Mephedrone is commonly nasally insufflated, inject- MDPV between 2009 and 2010, although in most of
ed, ingested by swallowing a powder wrapped in paper the cases the presence of other drugs was also detect-
(‘bombing’), or mixed in a drink. ed.32 A report from the United States provided details
on the case of 35 patients who visited an Emergency
Reported adverse effects Department over a 3-month-period after ingesting,
inhaling or injecting substances sold as ‘bath salts’ and
Few reports on the toxicity of synthetic cathinones ex- asserted that these products could contain stimulant
ist to date. Much of the current knowledge on health- compounds such as MDPV or mephedrone. One
related effects comes from user reports and clinical person was dead upon arrival at the emergency de-
observations. Further research is needed to provide partment. The toxicological analysis revealed a high
evidence of short and long-term health risks and the level of MDPV, along with cannabis and prescription
addiction potential associated with the use of these drugs, but the autopsy results revealed MDPV toxicity
substances. to be the primary factor contributing to death.33
7
Global SMART Programme 2013
8
Main New Psychoactive Substances Encountered In Illicit ATS Markets And Their Effects
Background Br
Phenethylamines refer to a class of substances with
O
documented psychoactive and stimulant effects C
and include amphetamine, methamphetamine and
MDMA, all of which are controlled under the 1971 R4 R3
Convention.41 The phenethylamines also include ring- H
R5 N
substituted substances such as the ‘2C series’, ring- R1
substituted amphetamines such as the ‘D series’ (e.g.
R2
DOI, DOC), benzodifurans (e.g. Bromo-Dragonfly,
R6 R8
2C-B-Fly) and others (e.g. p-methoxymethamphet-
amine (PMMA)). R7
D
Seizures of phenethylamines were first reported
from the United States and European countries and Chemical structure of amphetamine (A), two substituted
since 2009 substances such as 2C-E, 2C-I, 4-FA and phenethylamines: 2C-B (B) and Bromo-Dragonfly (C),
PMMA have been commonly reported by several and the generic structure of phenethylamines (D). The
differences between amphetamine and two of the pheneth-
countries in different regions. Other phenethylamines
ylamine derivatives (i.e. 2C-B (internationally controlled
increasingly reported in the UNODC questionnaire
substance) and Bromo-Dragonfly) are highlighted in red.
on NPS since 2011 include 4-FMA, 5-APB, 6-APB The eight positions of the phenethylamine core that can be
and 2C-C-NBOMe. modified to generate a wide range of substituted pheneth-
ylamine derivatives are also highlighted in structure (D).
A number of studies have reported the synthesis of
some phenethylamines and amphetamine substitutes. included the ‘D series’ (e.g. DOC, DOI) and the ‘2C
In the 1980s and 1990s, Alexander Shulgin, a bio- series’ (e.g. 2C-T-7, 2C-T-2) of phenethylamines.
chemist and pharmacologist, reported the synthesis
of numerous new psychoactive compounds.42 This Simple variations on the mescaline molecule (a natu-
ral phenylethylamine) led to the synthesis of powerful
hallucinogenic substances, e.g. 4-bromo-2,5-dime-
40
2NRQ7DFDVHEDVHGUHYLHZ¶.HWDPLQHDQLQWURGXFWLRQIRUWKHSDLQ thoxyphenethylamine (2C-B), synthesized by Shulgin
and palliative medicine physician’, Pain Physician, 2007, 10, 493-500 in 1974. The ‘2C’ series differs from the ‘D’ series
41
+LOO 6/ 7KRPDV 6+ ¶&OLQLFDO WR[LFRORJ\ RI QHZHU UHFUHDWLRQDO only by a slight modification in the chemical struc-
GUXJV·-RXUQDO&OLQLFDO7R[LFRORJ\
42
Alexander Shulgin research institute, ‘Alexander ‘Sasha’ Shulgin’ (http:// ture, and their psychoactive effects have been reported
ZZZVKXOJLQUHVHDUFKRUJKRPHDERXWDOH[DQGHUVDVKDVKXOJLQ to be dose dependant, ranging from mere stimulant
9
Global SMART Programme 2013
10
Main New Psychoactive Substances Encountered In Illicit ATS Markets And Their Effects
Cl CF3
HN N HN N HN N
A B C
Chemical structures of BZP (A), mCPP (B) and TFMPP (C).
case of acute psychosis after ingestion of 2C-T-4 was is 1-benzylpiperazine (BZP), during the last decade
reported in Japan.52 Three fatal cases associated with other compounds such as 1-(3-chlorophenyl) pipera-
the use of 2C-T-7 have been identified, two of which zine (mCPP), 1-(3-trifluoromethylphenyl) piperazine
involved poly-drug use.53 (TFMPP) and, to a lesser extent, 1-Benzyl-4-methyl-
piperazine (MBZP) and 1-(4-Fluorophenyl)piperazine
PMA, PMMA and 4-methylthioamfetamine have been (pFPP) have been identified on the market.56
more often associated with incidental deaths than other
phenethylamines. PMA and PMMA are known to have BZP was initially developed as a potential antidepres-
a particularly high toxicity but there is no data available sant drug, but was found to have similar properties
on fatalities associated with their use. Clinical obser- to amphetamine and therefore liable to abuse. In the
vations have reported severe hyperthermia following 1980s, it was used in Hungary to manufacture pibera-
the use of these substances.54 Studies in animals have line, a substance marketed as an antidepressant, but later
suggested that some metabolites may be exposed to in- withdrawn.57 In the late 1990s, BZP emerged in New
creased toxicity from 4-MTA. Zealand as a ‘legal alternative’ for MDMA and metham-
phetamine.58 In Europe, its use was first reported in Swe-
2.5. Piperazines den in 1999, but it only became widespread as a NPS
from 2004 onwards until controls over the substance
Background were introduced in 2008, in the European Union.59
Piperazines have been described as ‘failed pharmaceu- MCPP, reportedly more widespread than BZP in some
ticals’, as some had been evaluated as potential thera- regions of the world,60 was developed during the late
peutic agents by pharmaceutical companies but never
brought to the market.55 While the best known pipera- 56
8QLWHG1DWLRQV2IÀFHRQ'UXJVDQG&ULPH¶812'&TXHVWLRQQDLUH
zine that has been used as a new psychoactive substance RQ136·VXEPLWWHGE\0HPEHU6WDWHVDQGDQHWZRUNRI GUXJDQDO\VLV
laboratories in 2012.
57
(XURSHDQ0RQLWRULQJ&HQWUHIRU'UXJVDQG'UXJ$GGLFWLRQ¶5HSRUW
52
0L\DMLPD00DWVXPRWR7DQG,WR6¶&7LQWR[LFDWLRQDFXWH RQWKHULVNDVVHVVPHQWRI %=3LQWKHIUDPHZRUNRI WKH&RXQFLOGHFL-
SV\FKRVLVFDXVHGE\DGHVLJQHUGUXJ·-RXUQDO3V\FKLDWU\DQG&OLQLFDO VLRQRQQHZSV\FKRDFWLYHVXEVWDQFHV·5LVN$VVHVVPHQWV,VVXH/LV-
Neurosciences, 2008, 62, 243 bon, 2009, 23
53 58
&XUWLV%.HPS3+DUW\/&KRL&DQG&KULVWHQVHQ'¶3RVWPRU- ´$SSUR[LPDWHO\WRPLOOLRQWDEOHWVKDGEHHQPDQXIDFWXUHGE\9L-
WHPLGHQWLÀFDWLRQDQGTXDQWLWDWLRQRI GLPHWKR[\QSURS\OWKLR- WDÀW 1XWULWLRQ /WG IRU 6WDUJDWH ,QWHUQDWLRQDO RQH RI WKH PDMRU GLV-
SKHQHWK\ODPLQHXVLQJ*&06'DQG*&13'·-RXUQDORI $QDO\WLFDO WULEXWRUVLQ1HZ=HDODQGVLQFHµ1HZ=HDODQG([SHUW$GYLVRU\
Toxicology, 2003, 27, 493-98 &RPPLWWHHRQ'UXJV($&'¶$GYLFHWRWKH0LQLVWHURQ%HQ]\OSL-
54
/LQJ/+0DUFKDQW&%XFNOH\1$3ULRU0,UYLQH5-¶3RLVRQLQJ SHUD]LQH%=3·,QGXVWU\ÀJXUHVSRLQWHGRXWWKDWPLOOLRQGRV-
ZLWKWKHUHFUHDWLRQDOGUXJSDUDPHWKR[\DPSKHWDPLQH¶GHDWK··0HGLFDO HVZHUHVROGRYHUDQ\HDUSHULRG6WDUJDWH,QWHUQDWLRQDO¶3DUW\SLOOV
-RXUQDORI $XVWUDOLD'H/HWWHU($&RRSPDQ9$ VXFFHVVIXOVDIHW\UHFRUG·KWWSZZZVWDUJDWHLQWHUQDWLRQDORUJ
&RUGRQQLHU-$DQG3LHWWH0+¶2QHIDWDODQGVHYHQQRQIDWDOFDVHV SUHVVBB3DUW\3LOOV6XFFHVVIXO6DIHW\5HFRUGGRF
of 4-methylthioamphetamine (4-MTA) intoxication: clinico-pathological pdf; accessed in: September 2012)
59
ÀQGLQJV·,QWHUQDWLRQDO-RXUQDORI /HJDO0HGLFLQH(O- (XURSHDQ0RQLWRULQJ&HQWUHIRU'UXJVDQG'UXJ$GGLFWLRQ¶5HSRUW
OLRW63¶)DWDOSRLVRQLQJZLWKDQHZSKHQHWK\ODPLQHPHWK\OWKLRDP- RQWKHULVNDVVHVVPHQWRI %=3LQWKHIUDPHZRUNRI WKH&RXQFLOGHFL-
phetamine (4-MTA)’, Journal of Analytical Toxicology, 2000, 24, 85-9; VLRQRQQHZSV\FKRDFWLYHVXEVWDQFHV·5LVN$VVHVVPHQWV,VVXH/LV-
)HOJDWH+()HOJDWH3'-DPHV5$6LPV'1DQG9R]]R'&¶5H- bon, 2009, 23
cent paramethoxyamphetamine deaths’, Journal of Analytical Toxicol- 60
%\LWZDVHVWLPDWHGWKDWDOPRVWRI LOOLFLWWDEOHWVVROGLQWKH
RJ\/DPEHUWK3*'LQJ*.1XUPL/$¶)DWDO EU, as part of the illicit ecstasy market, contained m&33SHUFHQWDJH
SDUDPHWKR[\DPSKHWDPLQH 30$ SRLVRQLQJ LQ WKH $XVWUDOLDQ &DSLWDO WKDWLQFUHDVHGXSWRLQVRPH0HPEHU6WDWHVDWWKHHQGRI
Territory’, Medical Journal of Australia, 2008, 188, 426 DQGEHJLQQLQJRI (XURSHDQ0RQLWRULQJ&HQWUHIRU'UXJVDQG
55
'UXJ7HVWLQJDQG$QDO\VLV>(GLWRULDO@¶$EULHI KLVWRU\RI ¶QHZSV\- 'UXJ $GGLFWLRQ ¶%=3 DQG RWKHU SLSHUD]LQHV· 'UXJ 3URÀOHV ZZZ
choactive substances’’, 2011, 3, 401-403 emcdda.europa.eu; accessed in: September 2012)
11
Global SMART Programme 2013
1970s and is used as an intermediate in the manufacture Piperazines are usually available in the form of pills
of several antidepressants, e.g. trazodone and nefazodo- (regularly pressed with logos similar to ecstasy pills),
ne.61 TFMPP is almost always seen in combination with capsules or loose powders, and are mainly consumed
BZP to produce the entactogenic62 effects of MDMA.63 by ingestion. Liquid forms are rarely seen, but injec-
tion, smoking and snorting is also possible.
Neither BZP nor any other piperazines are under in-
ternational control, although several (BZP, TFMPP, Reported adverse effects
mCPP, MDBP) were pre-reviewed by the WHO Ex-
pert Committee on Drug Dependence in 2012. Several Information on the toxicological aspects of many pi-
countries have introduced national control measures perazines listed in this group remain limited. Further
over piperazines. research is required to provide evidence on short and
long term health-effects associated with the use of
Description these substances. Current knowledge comes from user
reports, studies in animals, limited human studies, and
Piperazines are frequently sold as ‘ecstasy’. Some of the clinical observations.
generic names for these substances include, ‘pep pills’,
‘social tonics’ or simply ‘party pills’. The latter term was Piperazines have been found to act as stimulants as a
used to commercialize BZP in New Zealand.64 Other result of dopaminergic, noradrenergic, and predomi-
street names include Jax, A2, Benny Bear, Flying Angel, nantly serotoninergic effects produced in the brain. BZP
Legal E or Legal X, and Pep X, Pep Love or Nemesis.65 produces toxic effects similar to amphetamine and other
MCPP is known as 3CPP, 3C1-PP or CPP. sympathomimetics, although, according to animal stud-
ies, its effects are less potent than amphetamine, meth-
61
amphetamine and MDMA.66 TFMPP, used in conjunc-
)RQJ0+*DUDWWLQL6&DFFLD6¶P&KORURSKHQ\OSLSHUD]LQHLVDQ
active metabolite common to the psychotropic drugs trazodone, eto-
tion with BZP, has been reported to produce some of
peridone and mepiprazole’, Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmacology, the effects of MDMA, but with a lower potency,67 while
1982, 34, 674-5 mCPP has been indicated to produce similar stimulant
62
´(QWDFWRJHQV HYRNH PDLQO\ SOHDVDQW HPRWLRQDO HIIHFWV RI UHOD[DWLRQ
feelings of happiness, increased empathy, and closeness to others”.
and hallucinogenic effects as MDMA.68
'RZQLQJ-¶7KHSV\FKRORJLFDODQGSK\VLRORJLFDOHIIHFWVRI 0'0$
RQQRUPDOYROXQWHHUV·-RXUQDO3V\FKRDFWLYH'UXJV In New Zealand, toxic seizures and respiratory acidosis
*UHHU*57ROEHUW5¶6XEMHFWLYHUHSRUWVRI WKHHIIHFWVRI 0'0$
LQDFOLQLFDOVHWWLQJ·-RXUQDO3V\FKRDFWLYH'UXJV/L- after the use of BZP alone or in conjunction with oth-
HVWHU 0% *URE &6 %UDYR */ :DOVK 51 ¶3KHQRPHQRORJ\ er drugs were reported from three patients.69 Another
DQG VHTXHODH RI PHWK\OHQHGLR[\PHWKDPSKHWDPLQH· -RXUQDO RI study of 61 patients reported toxic effects of BZP, with
1HUYRXVDQG0HQWDO'LVHDVH+HUPOH/6SLW]HU
0%RUFKDUGW'.RYDU.$*RX]RXOLV(¶3V\FKRORJLFDOHIIHFWV two cases presenting life-threatening toxicity.70 Hyper-
RI 0'(LQQRUPDOVXEMHFWV$UHHQWDFWRJHQVDQHZFODVVRI SV\FKRDF-
WLYHDJHQWV"·1HXURSV\FKRSKDUPDFRORJ\&RKHQ56
¶6XEMHFWLYH UHSRUWV RQ WKH HIIHFWV RI WKH 0'0$ ´(FVWDV\´ H[SHUL-
66
ence in humans’, Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology %LRORJLFDO3V\- (OOLRWW6¶&XUUHQWDZDUHQHVVRI SLSHUD]LQHVSKDUPDFRORJ\DQGWR[L-
FKLDWU\LV 9ROOHQZHLGHU ); *DPPD $ /LHFKWL FRORJ\·'UXJ7HVWLQJDQG$QDO\VLV
67
M., Huber,T., ‘Psychological and cardiovascular effects and short-term %DXPDQQ0&ODUN5'%XG]\QVNL$*3DUWLOOD-6%ORXJK%(
VHTXHODHRI 0'0$´HFVWDV\´LQ0'0$QDLYHKHDOWK\YROXQWHHUV· 5RWKPDQ5%¶(IIHFWVRI ¶/HJDO;·SLSHUD]LQHDQDORJVRQGRSDPLQH
1HXURSV\FKRSKDUPDFRORJ\ DV FLWHG LQ *RX]RXOLV DQGVHURWRQLQUHOHDVHLQUDWEUDLQ·$QQDOVRI WKH1HZ<RUN$FDGHP\
0D\IUDQN ( ¶'LIIHUHQWLDO DFWLRQV RI DQ HQWDFWRJHQ FRPSDUHG WR D RI 6FLHQFHV%DXPDQQ0&ODUN5'%XG]\Q-
VWLPXODQWDQGDKDOOXFLQRJHQLQKHDOWK\KXPDQV·7KH+HIIWHU5HYLHZ VNL $* 3DUWLOOD -6 %ORXJK %( 5RWKPDQ 5% ¶16XEVWLWXWHG
of Psychedelic Research, 2001, 2, 64-72 piperazines abused by humans mimic the molecular mechanism of
63
:LONLQV&*LUOLQJ06ZHHWVXU3+XFNOH7+DXNDX-¶/HJDO3DUW\ PHWK\OHQHGLR[\PHWKDPSKHWDPLQH0'0$RU¶(FVWDV\··1HX-
3LOOXVHLQ1HZ=HDODQG3UHYDOHQFHRI 8VH$YDLODELOLW\+HDOWK+DUPV ropsychopharmacology, 2005, 30 (3), 550-60
68
DQG¶*DWHZD\(IIHFWV·RI %HQ]\OSLSHUD]LQH%=3DQG7ULÁXRURSKHQ\O- 7DQFHU0(-RKDQVRQ&(¶7KHVXEMHFWLYHHIIHFWVRI 0'0$DQG
PHWK\OSLSHUD]LQH 7)033· 1DWLRQDO +RXVHKROG 6XUYH\ &HQWUH IRU m&33LQPRGHUDWH0'0$XVHUV·'UXJDQG$OFRKRO'HSHQGHQFH
Social and Health Outcomes Research and Evaluation (SHORE), FLWHGLQ(OOLRWW6¶&XUUHQWDZDUHQHVVRI SLSHUD]LQHV
0DVVH\8QLYHUVLW\1HZ=HDODQG SKDUPDFRORJ\ DQG WR[LFRORJ\· 'UXJ 7HVWLQJ DQG $QDO\VLV
64
Stargate International, ‘Party pills: successful safety record’ (http:// 430-8)
69
ZZZVFRRSFRQ]VWRULHV326KWP *HH 3 5LFKDUGVRQ 6 :ROWHUVGRUI : DQG 0RRUH * ¶7R[LF HI-
65
8QLWHG6WDWHV'UXJ(QIRUFHPHQW$GPLQLVWUDWLRQ¶1%HQ]\OSLSHUD]LQH fects of BZP-based herbal party pills in humans: a prospective study
VWUHHW1DPHV%=3$/HJDO(RU/HJDO;·(XURSHDQ0RQL- LQ&KULVWFKXUFK1HZ=HDODQG·1HZ=HDODQG0HGLFDO-RXUQDO
WRULQJ&HQWUHIRU'UXJVDQG'UXJ$GGLFWLRQ¶5HSRUWRQWKHULVNDV- 118, U1784
70
VHVVPHQW RI %=3 LQ WKH IUDPHZRUN RI WKH &RXQFLO GHFLVLRQ RQ QHZ *HH 3 5LFKDUGVRQ 6 :ROWHUVGRUI : DQG 0RRUH * ¶7R[LF HI-
psychoactive substances’, Risk Assessments Issue 8, Lisbon, 2009; World fects of BZP-based herbal party pills in humans: a prospective study
+HDOWK2UJDQL]DWLRQ¶1EHQ]\OSLSHUD]LQH%=3SUHUHYLHZUHSRUW([- LQ&KULVWFKXUFK1HZ=HDODQG·1HZ=HDODQG0HGLFDO-RXUQDO
SHUW&RPPLWWHHRQ'UXJ'HSHQGHQFH7KLUW\ÀIWK0HHWLQJ· 118, U1784
12
Main New Psychoactive Substances Encountered In Illicit ATS Markets And Their Effects
thermia, rhabdomyolysis and renal failure associated mented.78 The khat shrub became known to Europe-
with BZP ingestion have also been reported.71 In the ans in the late 18th century and in the 19th century,
United Kingdom, self-terminating grand mal seizures72 and the active constituents of the plant were isolated
after the use of BZP have also been reported.73 in the 19th and 20th century. A ‘katin’ alkaloid was
identified first in 1887, ‘cathine’ in 1930 and ‘cathi-
Between 2004 and 2008, six fatal cases involving pi- none’ in 1975.79
perazines use were reported in Europe. Two of the cases
involved the use of BZP in conjunction with TFMPP In Europe and North America, khat was considered
and none referred to the use of piperazines alone.74 to be traditionally used by migrant communities from
BZP and TFMPP were also associated with 19 fatali- Ethiopia, Kenya, Somalia and Yemen, but in recent
ties between 2007 and 2010.75 While reported effects years its use has spread beyond these communities.
of mCPP include the serotonin syndrome, no fatal poi- Respondents to the UNODC questionnaire on NPS
sonings from mCPP have been reported so far.76 Simi- from Bahrain, Canada, Finland, Ireland, Italy, New
larly, toxic effects from the use of TFMPP alone have Zealand, Norway, Oman, United States and Hong
not been documented.77 Kong (China) reported that khat emerged on their
markets in 2009, and was the second most popular
2.6. Plant-based substances plant based substance, after salvia divinorum, reported
by Member States from 2009 to 2012.
2.6.1. Khat
Catha edulis is not under international drug control,
Background but cathinone and cathine are listed in Schedules I
and III, respectively, of the 1971 Convention. Khat is
The khat shrub (Catha edulis) of the celastraceae fam- under national control in several countries.
ily is a plant native to the horn of Africa and the Ara-
bian peninsula. Khat chewing is a social custom in Description
the communities living in these areas. The psychoac-
tive effects resulting from the release of cathinone and Street names for khat include ‘qat’, ‘gat’, ‘chat’, ‘miraa’,
cathine alkaloids after chewing of khat are well-docu- ‘murungu’ and ‘Arabian or Abyssinian tea’. Due to the
degradation of cathinone, khat leaves need to be con-
sumed soon after harvesting and therefore fresh leaves
71
*HH 3 -HUUDP 7 %RZLH ' ¶0XOWLRUJDQ IDLOXUH IURP EHQ]\OSL- of khat are the preferred form of use, but dried leaves
SHUD]LQH LQJHVWLRQ²OHJDO KLJK RU OHWKDO KLJK"· &OLQLFDO 7R[LFRORJ\
(Philadelphia), 2010, 48, 230-3 (‘graba’) are also available. Khat is usually consumed
72
´$ JHQHUDOL]HG WRQLFFORQLF VHL]XUH LV D VHL]XUH LQYROYLQJ WKH HQWLUH by chewing the leaves and shoots of the plant, but in-
ERG\,WLVDOVRFDOOHGDJUDQGPDOVHL]XUH7KHWHUPV´VHL]XUHµFRQ- fusions are also possible. Recently, alcoholic extracts of
YXOVLRQµ RU ´HSLOHSV\µ DUH PRVW RIWHQ DVVRFLDWHG ZLWK JHQHUDOL]HG
tonic-clonic seizures”. United States, National Library of Medicine khat sold as ‘herbal highs’ have been reported.80
KWWSZZZQOPQLKJRYPHGOLQHSOXVHQF\DUWLFOHKWP
73
:RRG'0%XWWRQ-/LGGHU65DPVH\-+ROW':'DUJDQ3, Reported adverse effects
¶'LVVRFLDWLYHDQGV\PSDWKRPLPHWLFWR[LFLW\DVVRFLDWHGZLWKUHFUHDWLRQDO
XVHRI WULÁXRURPHWK\OSKHQ\OSLSHUD]LQH7)033DQGEHQ]\O-
piperzine (BZP)’, Journal of Medical Toxicology, 2008, 4, 254-7 It has been estimated that a typical chewing session of
74
(OOLRWW66PLWK&¶,QYHVWLJDWLRQRI WKHÀUVWGHDWKVLQWKH8.LQ- khat results in the absorption of its active constituents
YROYLQJ WKH GHWHFWLRQ DQG TXDQWLWDWLRQ RI WKH SLSHUD]LQHV %=3 DQG
3-TFMPP’, Journal of Analytical Toxicology, 2008, 32, 172; Wik- with an activity equivalent to that of approximately 5
VWURP0+ROPJUHQ3$KOQHU-¶$1%HQ]\OSLSHUD]LQHDQHZ mg of amphetamine.81 The pharmacological effects of
GUXJRI DEXVHLQ6ZHGHQ·-RXUQDORI $QDO\WLFDO7R[LFRORJ\
%DOPHOOL&.XSIHUVFKPLGW+5HQWVFK.DQG6FKQHHPDQQ0
‘Fatal brain edema after ingestion of ecstasy and benzylpiperazine’,
78
'HXWVFKH0HGL]LQLVFKH:RFKHQVFKULIW 6DZDLU)$$O0XWZDNHO$$O(U\DQL.$O6XUK\$0DUX\DPD
75
(OOLRWW6¶&XUUHQWDZDUHQHVVRI SLSHUD]LQHVSKDUPDFRORJ\DQGWR[L- 6&KHQJ-$O6KDUDEL$DQG6DNX7¶+LJKUHODWLYHIUHTXHQF\RI
FRORJ\·'UXJ7HVWLQJDQG$QDO\VLV$GHWDLOHGGHVFULS- RUDOVTXDPRXVFHOOFDUFLQRPDLQ<HPHQTDWDQGWREDFFRFKHZLQJDV-
tion of fatal and non-fatal cases related to the use of BZP is available its aetiological background’, International Journal of Environmental
LQ:RUOG+HDOWK2UJDQL]DWLRQ¶1EHQ]\OSLSHUD]LQH%=3SUHUHYLHZ Health Research, 2007, 17, 185-95
79
UHSRUW([SHUW&RPPLWWHHRQ'UXJ'HSHQGHQFH7KLUW\ÀIWK0HHW- See Szendrei, K., ‘The chemistry of khat’, Bulletin on Narcotics, 1980,
ing’, 2012 32, 3, 5-35 for further information.
76 80
(XURSHDQ0RQLWRULQJ&HQWUHIRU'UXJVDQG'UXJ$GGLFWLRQ¶%=3 (XURSHDQ0RQLWRULQJ&HQWUHIRU'UXJVDQG'UXJ$GGLFWLRQ¶NKDW·
DQGRWKHUSLSHUD]LQHV·'UXJ3URÀOHVZZZHPFGGDHXURSDHX 'UXJ3URÀOHVZZZHPFGGDHXURSDHX
77 81
(OOLRWW6¶&XUUHQWDZDUHQHVVRI SLSHUD]LQHVSKDUPDFRORJ\DQGWR[L- 'KDLIDODK,DQG6DQWDY\-¶.KDWKDELWDQGLWVKHDOWKHIIHFW$QDWXUDO
FRORJ\·'UXJ7HVWLQJDQG$QDO\VLV amphetamine’, Biomedical Papers, 2004, 148, 11-5
13
Global SMART Programme 2013
khat resemble those of amphetamine use, and includes vironment and the time of harvesting.
increased alertness, euphoria, hyperthermia, anorexia, in-
creased respiration rate, heart rate and blood pressure.82 Internet surveys conducted by the EMCDDA in 2008
and 2011 revealed that kratom is one of the most
Fatalities associated with the sole consumption of khat widely offered NPS.85 Respondents to the UNODC
have not yet been reported. However, prolonged use questionnaire on NPS reported kratom among the
of khat has been linked to adverse effects that range top three plant-based substances, along with khat and
from psychiatric disturbances (from psychosis to de- salvia divinorum.86 As kratom is often not monitored
pression) to damage of major organs of the body, as in national drug abuse surveys, there is little informa-
well as to similar neurological disorders to those as- tion on prevalence of its use.
sociated with amphetamine and cocaine use.83
Neither kratom nor any of its active alkaloids are list-
2.6.2. Kratom ed under the 1961 and 1971 Conventions, but several
countries have adopted control measures on kratom,
Background mitragynine and 7-hydroxymitragynine.
85
82
.HOO\-3¶&DWKLQRQHGHULYDWLYHVDUHYLHZRI WKHLUFKHPLVWU\SKDUPD- (XURSHDQ 0RQLWRULQJ &HQWUH IRU 'UXJV DQG 'UXJ $GGLFWLRQ ¶NUD-
FRORJ\DQGWR[LFRORJ\·'UXJ7HVWLQJDQG$QDO\VLV WRP·'UXJ3URÀOHVZZZHPFGGDHXURSDHX
86
83
Hoffman, R. and Al’absi, M., ‘Khat use and neurobehavioural func- 8QLWHG1DWLRQV2IÀFHRQ'UXJVDQG&ULPH¶812'&TXHVWLRQQDLUH
tions: suggestions for future studies’, Journal of Ethnopharmacol- RQQHZSV\FKRDFWLYHVXEVWDQFHV·VXEPLWWHGE\0HPEHU6WDWHVDQGD
ogy, 2010, 132, 554; Morrish, P.K., Nicolaou, N., Brakkenberg, P. QHWZRUNRI GUXJDQDO\VLVODERUDWRULHVLQ
87
DQG6PLWK3(¶/HXNRHQFHSKDORSDWK\DVVRFLDWHGZLWKNKDWPLVXVH· (XURSHDQ 0RQLWRULQJ &HQWUH IRU 'UXJV DQG 'UXJ $GGLFWLRQ ¶NUD-
Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery, and Psychiatry, 1999, 67, 556; WRP·'UXJ3URÀOHVZZZHPFGGDHXURSDHX
2GHQZDOG0¶&KURQLFNKDWXVHDQGSV\FKRWLFGLVRUGHUVDUHYLHZRI 88
.LNXUD+DQDMLUL5.DZDPXUD00DUX\DPD7.LWDMLPD07DND\D-
the literature and future prospects’, Sucht, 2007, 53, 9-22 PD+DQG*RGD<¶6LPXOWDQHRXVDQDO\VLVRI PLWUDJ\QLQHK\GUR[\PL-
84
(XURSHDQ 0RQLWRULQJ &HQWUH IRU 'UXJV DQG 'UXJ $GGLFWLRQ ¶NUD- WUDJ\QLQHDQGRWKHUDONDORLGVLQWKHSV\FKRWURSLFSODQW´NUDWRPµMitragy-
WRP·'UXJ3URÀOHVZZZHPFGGDHXURSDHX na speciosaE\/&(6,06·)RUHQVLF7R[LFRORJ\
14
Main New Psychoactive Substances Encountered In Illicit ATS Markets And Their Effects
Nine fatal cases of intoxication associated with the use of rin A (known as ‘the fresh-man selection’ or the ‘starter
‘krypton’, a mixture of mitragynine and O-desmethyltra- pack’) are also available on the market.91 Recent studies
madol, have been described in scientific literature. How- of products containing salvia divinorum have shown a
ever, these fatalities have been attributed to the addition mismatch between the label and the actual constituent
of O-desmethyltramadol to the dried kratom leaves.89 of the products. Vitamin E and caffeine have also been
reported as adulterants.
2.6.3. Salvia divinorum
Salvia divinorum is traditionally consumed by sucking
Background and chewing the fresh leaves from a cigar-like roll or al-
ternatively the fresh leaves are crashed to make a drink-
Salvia divinorum (of the mint family Lamiaceae), is a able infusion. Many users reportedly inhale vaporized sal-
psychoactive plant indigenous to forest areas in Oxa- vinorin A extract, or smoke the dried leaves of the plant.
ca, Mexico. It was traditionally used by the Mazatec Smoking of the dry leaves is reported to produce short
Indians for religious practices and medical purposes, but intense hallucinations, and the effects of salvinorin A
although there is no approved medicinal use for salvia have been compared to those of LSD or DOB.92
divinorum or its active ingredient salvinorin A. The
use of salvia divinorum as a new psychoactive sub- Reported adverse effects
stance dates back to the 1990s but respondents to the
UNODC questionnaire on NPS identified this plant Animal studies have shown low toxicity and low addic-
as the most common plant-based substance in 2009, tive potential for salvia divinorum.93 Like other plant-
and the third, after khat and kratom, in 2012. based substances, there are limited scientific studies in
humans that report acute or chronic toxicity associated
Neoclerodane diterpene (i.e. salvinorin A) is the active with its use, but clinical observations have indicated last-
component responsible for the psychoactive effects of ing psychosis in vulnerable individuals. Thus far, there
the plant in the 1980s. The concentration of salvino- are no reports on fatalities from use of salvia divinorum.
rin A in salvia divinorum leaves varies and depends on However, toxicological analyses have proved difficult as
the stage of development of the plant and the type of salvinorin A and other diterpenoids of the plant are not
preparation. detected by conventional drug screening methods.94
Neither salvia divinorum nor salvinorin A are under 2.7. Miscellaneous substances
international control. However, due to the increasing
use of this plant as a new psychoactive substance, the 2.7.1. Aminoindanes
plant and its active constituent salvinorin A are in-
creasingly controlled in several countries under differ- Background
ent regulatory frameworks.
In the 1970s, aminoindanes were reported to possess
Description significant bronchodilating and analgesic properties, but
recent research has indicated that they also have potent
Street names for salvia divinorum include ‘Maria Pas- effects on serotonin release and re-uptake.95 These sub-
tora’, ‘Sage of the Seers’, ‘Diviner’s Sage’, ‘Salvia’, ‘Sally-D’,
‘Magic Mint’, ‘Purple Sticky’, ‘Shepherdess’s Herb’.90 91
%DEX.00F&XUG\&5DQG%R\HU(:¶2SLRLGUHFHSWRUVDQG
legal highs: Salvia divinorumDQG.UDWRP·&OLQLFDO7R[LFRORJ\3KLOD-
delphia), 2008, 46 (2), 146-52
Salvia divinorum is usually sold as seeds or leaves, but 92
(XURSHDQ0RQLWRULQJ&HQWUHIRU'UXJVDQG'UXJ$GGLFWLRQ‘Salvia
a liquid extract purported to contain salvinorin A and divinorum’'UXJ3URÀOHVZZZHPFGGDHXURSDHX
93
a combination of dried leaves and extracts of salvino- 0RZU\00RVKHU0DQG%ULQHU:¶$FXWHSK\VLRORJLFDQGFKURQ-
LFKLVWRORJLFFKDQJHVLQUDWVDQGPLFHH[SRVHGWRWKHXQLTXHKDOOXFLQR-
JHQVDOYLQRULQ$·-RXUQDORI 3V\FKRDFWLYH'UXJV
89 94
.URQVWUDQG 5 5RPDQ 0 7KHODQGHU * DQG (ULNVVRQ $ ¶8QLQ- (XURSHDQ0RQLWRULQJ&HQWUHIRU'UXJVDQG'UXJ$GGLFWLRQ‘Salvia
WHQWLRQDOIDWDOLQWR[LFDWLRQVZLWKPLWUDJ\QLQHDQG2GHVPHWK\OWUDPDGRO divinorum’'UXJ3URÀOHVZZZHPFGGDHXURSDHX
from the herbal blend krypton’, Journal of Analytical Toxicology, 2011, 95
Solomons, E. and Sam, J, ‘2-aminoindans of pharmacological inter-
35 (4), 242-7 HVW· -RXUQDO RI 0HGLFLQDO &KHPLVWU\ -RKQVRQ
90
8QLWHG6WDWHV'UXJ(QIRUFHPHQW$GPLQLVWUDWLRQ‘Salvia divinorum and M.P., Frescas, S.P., et al., ‘Synthesis and pharmacological examination of
VDOYLQRULQ $· KWWSZZZGHDGLYHUVLRQXVGRMJRYGUXJVBFRQ- 1-(3-methoxy-4-methylphenyl)-2-aminopropane and 5-methoxy-6-meth-
FHUQVDOYLDBGSGI(XURSHDQ0RQLWRULQJ&HQWUHIRU'UXJVDQG'UXJ yl-2-aminoindan: similarities to 3,4-(methylenedioxy)methamphetamine
Addiction, ‘Salvia divinorum’'UXJ3URÀOHVZZZHPFGGDHXURSDHX 0'0$·-RXUQDORI 0HGLFLQDO&KHPLVWU\
15
Global SMART Programme 2013
16
Main New Psychoactive Substances Encountered In Illicit ATS Markets And Their Effects
PCP-type substances appeared for the first time in Eu- Tryptamine, the prototype of the tryptamines group, is
rope as ‘research chemicals’ in 2010, when the United a primary amine alkaloid. Some tryptamines are natural
Kingdom reported 3-methoxyeticyclidine (3-MeO- neurotransmitters while most are psychoactive halluci-
PCE) to the European Early Warning System.106 In nogens found in plants, fungi and animals.109 Natural
2011, 4-methoxyphencyclidine (4-MeO-PCP) was tryptamines include serotonin, melatonin, bufotenin,110
identified in Norway, Russian Federation and the 5-Methoxy-N,N-dimethyltryptamine (5-MeO-DMT)
United Kingdom.107 Respondents to the UNODC and dimethyltryptamine (DMT). Other tryptamines
questionnaire on NPS reported 4-MeO-PCP as the have been synthesized for pharmaceutical purposes to
most common PCP-type substance. combat medical conditions (e.g. sumatriptan and zolmi-
triptan to treat migraine), but they have also been used
PCP and phenylcyclohexyl analogues, including eticy- as NPS.
clidine (PCE), rolicyclidine (PHP, PCPY), tenocycli-
dine (TCP) are controlled in Schedule I of the 1971 The use of psilocybin,111 a natural hallucinogen found
Convention but derivatives such as 3-MeO-PCE and in certain species of mushrooms that contain the
4-MeO-PCP are not under international control. tryptamine structure, became widespread in the late
1950s in the United States, but synthetic tryptamines
Description appeared on illicit drug markets only throughout the
1990s. The use of tryptamines remains limited but ap-
3-MeO-PCE and 4-MeO-PCP are frequently sold as pears to have increased over the past five years. For
research chemicals and usually in powder form. example, the Drug Enforcement Administration of
the United States reported that the estimated number
Reported adverse effects of tryptamine reports to State and local laboratories
in the United States rose from 42 reports in 2006 to
There is very limited information on the PCP ana- 474 reports in 2010. Respondents to the UNODC
logues. Acute PCP intoxication results in a wide range questionnaire on NPS reported the incidence of both
of behavioural/psychological effects, from mild neu- natural and synthetic tryptamines including, 5-MeO-
rologic and physiologic abnormalities, stupor or light DMT, 5-MeO-DPT, AMT, 4-AcO-DMT, 4-AcO-
coma to deep coma. Manifestations of behavioural DiPT, and 5-HTP.
toxicity resemble psychiatric syndromes. PCP has also
been claimed to cause violent behaviour.108 Psilocin, psilocybin, DET, DMT, and etryptamine are
the only tryptamines under international control (listed
105
3HDUOVRQ *' ¶3V\FKLDWULF DQG PHGLFDO V\QGURPHV DVVRFLDWHG ZLWK in Schedule I of the 1971 Convention). Some others
SKHQF\FOLGLQH 3&3 DEXVH· -RKQV +RSNLQV PHGLFDO MRXUQDO are restricted at the national level in several countries.
6PLWK-%¶6LWXDWLRQDOVSHFLÀFLW\RI WROHUDQFHWRHIIHFWV
RI SKHQF\FOLGLQHRQUHVSRQGLQJRI UDWVXQGHUÀ[HGUDWLRDQGVSDFHG
responding schedules’, Psychopharmacology, 1991, 103, 121-8
106
(XURSHDQ0RQLWRULQJ&HQWUHIRU'UXJVDQG'UXJ$GGLFWLRQDQG(X-
URSHDQ 3ROLFH 2IÀFH ¶(0&''$²(XURSRO $QQXDO UHSRUW RQ
WKH LPSOHPHQWDWLRQ RI &RXQFLO 'HFLVLRQ -+$ $QQH[
³1HZSV\FKRDFWLYHVXEVWDQFHVUHSRUWHGWRWKH(0&''$DQG(X-
109
URSROIRUWKHÀUVWWLPHLQXQGHUWKHWHUPVRI &RXQFLO'HFLVLRQ &ROOLQV0¶6RPHQHZSV\FKRDFWLYHVXEVWDQFHVSUHFXUVRUFKHPLFDOV
2005/387/JHA’, Lisbon, 2011 DQGV\QWKHVLVGULYHQHQGSURGXFWV·'UXJ7HVWLQJDQG$QDO\VLV
107
8QLWHG1DWLRQV2IÀFHRQ'UXJVDQG&ULPH¶812'&TXHVWLRQQDLUH 3 (7-8), 404-16
110
RQQHZSV\FKRDFWLYHVXEVWDQFHV·VXEPLWWHGE\0HPEHU6WDWHVDQGD %XIRWHQLQ D WU\SWDPLQH FORVHO\ UHODWHG WR VHURWRQLQ ZDV RULJLQDOO\
QHWZRUNRI GUXJDQDO\VLVODERUDWRULHVLQ found by Wieland in the 1930s. Wieland, H., Konz, W. and Mittash,
108
*RUHOLFN'$DQG%DOVWHU5/¶3KHQF\FOLGLQH3&3·LQ)(%ORRP +¶'LH.RQVWLWXWLRQYRQ%XIRWHQLQXQG%XIRWHQLGLQhEHU.U|WHQ
5/.XSIHU(GV3V\FKRSKDUPDFRORJ\7KHIRXUWKJHQHUDWLRQ *LIWVWRIIH 9,,· -XVWXV /LHELJV $QQDOHQ GHU &KHPLH
RI SURJUHVV 1HZ <RUN %UHFKHU 0 :DQJ %: 1-25
111
Wong, H. and Morgan, J.P., ‘Phencyclidine and violence: clinical and 7KHVWUXFWXUHVRI SVLORFLQDQGSVLORF\ELQZHUHFRQÀUPHGE\$OEHUW
OHJDO LVVXHV· -RXUQDO RI &OLQLFDO 3V\FKRSKDUPDFRORJ\ Hoffmann et al. in 1959. Hoffmann, A., Heim. R., Brack, A. and Ko-
'DJKHVWDQL $1 DQG 6FKQROO 6+ ¶3KHQF\FOLGLQH DEXVH bel, H., ‘Experientia’, 1958, 14, 107-9; Hoffmann, A., Heim, R., Brack,
DQGGHSHQGHQFH·7UHDWPHQWVRI 3V\FKLDWULF'LVRUGHUV$WDVNIRUFH A., Kobel, H., Frey, A., Ott, H., Petrzilka, T. and Troxler, F., ‘Psilo-
report of the American Psychiatric Association, American Psychiatric F\ELQXQG3VLORFLQ]ZHLSV\FKRWURSH:LUNVWRIIHDXVPH[LNDQLVFKHQ
$VVRFLDWLRQ:DVKLQJWRQ'& 5DXVFKSLO]HQ·+HOYHWLFD&KLPLFD$FWD
17
Global SMART Programme 2013
O R5
R4
R1
N N N
R2
HN HN HN R3
A B C
Chemical structures of DMT (A), 5-MeO-DMT (B) and the generic structure of tryptamine derivatives (C). The structural
differences between 5-MeO-DMT and the related DMT (internationally controlled substance) is highlighted in red. (C)
Represents the generic structure of tryptamine derivatives, showing five of the positions that have been modified so far to
produce synthetic tryptamines.
Description
112
$ODWUDVK*0DMKDLO16DQG3LOH-&¶5KDEGRP\RO\VLVDIWHULQJHV-
WLRQRI ´)R[\µDKDOOXFLQRJHQLFWU\SWDPLQHGHULYDWLYH·0D\R&OLQLF
Proceedings, 2006, 81 (4), 550-1
113
$ODWUDVK*0DMKDLO16DQG3LOH-&¶5KDEGRP\RO\VLVDIWHULQJHV-
WLRQRI ´)R[\µDKDOOXFLQRJHQLFWU\SWDPLQHGHULYDWLYH·0D\R&OLQLF
Proceedings, 2006, 81 (4), 550-1
114
Einosuke, T., Tooru, K., Munehiro, K., Hitoshi, T. and Katsuya, H., ‘A
IDWDO SRLVRQLQJ ZLWK PHWKR[\1 1GLLVRSURS\OWU\SWDPLQH )R[\·
Forensic Science International, 2006, 163, 152–4; Sklerov, J., Levine,
%0RRUH.$.LQJ7DQG)RZOHU'¶$IDWDOLQWR[LFDWLRQIROORZ-
ing the ingestion of 5-methoxy-N,N-dimethyltryptamine in an aya-
huasca preparation’, Journal of Analytical Toxicology, 2005, 29 (8),
838-41
18
The Global Spread of New Psychoactive Substances
3.1. Emergence of new psychoactive All 80 countries and territories from all regions
substances provided data on the emergence of NPS, with 70
countries and territories116 (87%) indicating that
Prior to the present report, no information was avail- NPS had appeared on their drugs market, compared
able on the global spread of NPS, due to the absence to 10 countries117 (13%) which reported otherwise.
of a global early warning system which monitors Responses indicate a worldwide spread of NPS, with
the appearance of new substances. The UNODC countries and territories reporting their appearance
questionnaire on NPS, which was used to collect in Europe (31 countries or 94% of respondents),
information on this issue, received more than 240 followed by Asia (19 countries and territories or
responses from 80 countries and territories, indicat- 86% of respondents), the Americas (11 countries or
ing a high level of interest in the subject.115 Most 92% of respondents), Africa (7 countries or 70%
questionnaires were received from countries in Eu- of respondents) and Oceania (2 countries or all re-
rope (33), which might be due to the high degree of spondents).
awareness of the problem in that region, followed
by Asia (23 countries and territories), Americas (12 With respect to the global emergence by NPS
countries), Africa (10 countries) and Oceania (2 groups, ketamine as well as plant-based substances
countries). were reported by 44 respondents (83%), followed
by piperazines with 41 respondents (77%) and syn-
thetic cannabinoids with 40 respondents (75%). The
Global emergence of new psychoactive least reported NPS group were phenethylamines, re-
substances ported by 32 respondents (60%).
80
70
No of countries and
70
60
territories
50
40
116
30 Countries and territories reporting emergence of NPS: Albania,
Andorra, Angola, Argentina, Australia, Bahrain, Belgium, Bosnia
20
10 and Herzegovina, Brazil, Brunei Darussalam, Bulgaria, Canada,
10 Cape Verde, Chile, China, Colombia, Costa Rica, Croatia, Ecuador,
0 Egypt, Finland, France, Georgia, Germany, Ghana, Greece, Hong
Yes No Kong SAR, Hungary, Indonesia, Ireland, Israel, Italy, Japan, Jordan,
Latvia, Lebanon, Liechtenstein, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Malaysia,
Source: UNODC quesonnaire on NPS, 2012 Malta, Mexico, Republic of Moldova, Mongolia, Netherlands, New
Zealand, Norway, Oman, Panama, Philippines, Poland, Portugal, Ro-
mania, Russian Federation, Saudi Arabia, Serbia, Singapore, Slovakia,
South Africa, Spain, Switzerland, Thailand, Togo, Turkey, United
Arab Emirates, United Kingdom, United States of America, Uru-
115
Multiple responses were received from some countries, as question- guay, Viet Nam, Zimbabwe.
117
naires were frequently circulated to various authorities working on Countries, which reported that NPS had not emerged: Armenia,
this issue. In the analysis of the data, only respondents that provided Azerbaijan, the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, Mauritius,
full identifying information (institutions, country/territory) were con- Monaco, Nepal, Nigeria, Seychelles, Turkmenistan and Venezuela
sidered. (Bolivarian Republic of).
19
20
Map 1: Global emergence of new psychoactive substances
Global SMART Programme 2013
Luxembourg
Liechtenstein
Ç
Ç
Ç
ÇÇÇÇ
Ç
Ç
Ç
ÇÇ
ÇÇÇ ÇÇ
Ç
Ç Ç
ÇÇÇÇÇ
ÇÇÇÇÇÇ ÇÇÇÇ
ÇÇ
ÇÇÇÇÇÇ Ç
Ç
Andorra
Malta
ÇÇ
Ç
Ç
ÇÇÇÇ
ÇÇÇÇÇ ÇÇÇÇÇÇÇÇÇÇÇÇÇ
Ç
Ç
ÇÇ
ÇÇ
Ç ÇÇÇÇ ÇÇÇ Ç
Ç
ÇÇ
Ç ÇÇ ÇÇ
Ç
Monaco
Bahrain
Brunei Darussalam
Seychelles
Singapore
Mauritius
Yes
No
Not reported
The Global Spread of New Psychoactive Substances
50
45 44 44
41
40
40
37 37
35
32
No of countries
30
25
20
15
10
Synthec cannabinoids
Plant-based
Ketamine
Piperazines
Miscellaneous
Synthec cathinones
substances
Phenethylamines
Source: UNODC quesonnaire on NPS, 2012
35
31
30
No of countries and territories
25
19
20
15
11
10
7
4
5 3
2 2
1
0
0
Africa Americas Asia Europe Oceania
yes no
Source: UNODC quesonnaire on NPS, 2012
All NPS groups have emerged in all regions, except The appearance of the NPS groups over time shows
Africa where, so far, no synthetic cathinones and that all groups appeared before 2008, with ketamine
phenethylamines have been reported. being the most widely reported NPS (79%), followed
21
Global SMART Programme 2013
Ç
ÇÇ
Ç
ÇÇ
Ç
Ç
Ç ÇÇ
Ç
ÇÇ Ç Ç ÇÇ
ÇÇ
Ç ÇÇ
Ç
Ketamine Phenethylamines
Ç
Ç
Ç
Ç
Ç
Ç
Ç Ç
ÇÇ
ÇÇ
Ç Ç
Ç
Ç
Ç ÇÇ Ç ÇÇ
Ç
Ç
Ç
Ç
ÇÇ Ç Ç ÇÇ ÇÇ Ç Ç ÇÇ
ÇÇ
ÇÇ
Ç ÇÇ
Ç ÇÇ
Ç Ç
Ç
Ç
Ç
Ç
Ç Ç
ÇÇ
ÇÇ
Ç Ç
Ç
Ç
Ç ÇÇ Ç ÇÇ
Ç
Ç
Ç
Ç
ÇÇ Ç Ç ÇÇ ÇÇ Ç Ç ÇÇ
ÇÇ
ÇÇ
Ç ÇÇ
Ç ÇÇ
Ç Ç
Miscellaneous
Ç
ÇÇ
Ç
ÇÇ
Ç
Ç
Ç ÇÇ
Ç
ÇÇ Ç Ç ÇÇ
ÇÇ
Ç ÇÇ
22
The Global Spread of New Psychoactive Substances
30
25
20
No of countries
15
10
0
Africa Americas Asia Europe Oceania
by phenethylamines (75%) and piperazines (66%). on the other hand, rarely known before 2008, became
Synthetic cathinones made their largest first appear- more widespread until 2010, the year when their ap-
ance on the market in 2009. Synthetic cannabinoids, pearance was most frequently reported.
Ketamine
Phenethylamines
Piperazines
Miscellaneous
Plant-based substances
Synthec cathinones
Synthec cannabinoids
0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100%
23
Global SMART Programme 2013
Ç ÇÇ
Ç
Ç
ÇÇ
Ç
Ç
Ç Ç Ç
Ç
ÇÇ
Ç
Ç
Ç Ç Ç
Ç
ÇÇ Ç
Ç
ÇÇÇ
Ç Ç
Ç ÇÇ Ç
Ç
Ç
Ç
Ç
ÇÇ
Ç Ç Ç Ç ÇÇ
Ç
Ç
ÇÇ
ÇÇ
Ç
Synthetic cannabinoids
No data No occurrence Before 2008 2008 2009 2010 2011
Canada, Japan, Liechtenstein, Mexico and Togo re- Finland, Germany, Hungary, Netherlands and Norway as
ported that synthetic cannabinoids appeared on their well as Japan and Hong Kong (China) reported the ap-
markets before 2008, while New Zealand reported pearance of synthetic cathinones for the first time before
their first appearance in 2008. In Europe, synthetic 2008 and Israel for 2009. In comparison to synthetic can-
cannabinoids started to emerge on a larger scale in nabinoids, synthetic cathinones first appeared in Australia
2008 and 2009, with seven countries reporting every before 2008, and then in 2008 in New Zealand. In Can-
year first appearances In the Americas, synthetic can- ada and Mexico, synthetic cathinones appeared before
nabinoids were reported in 2009 from Chile and the 2008, followed by the United States in 2009. The highest
United States. In Europe, the appearance of synthetic number of countries, 14 all from Europe 118, first reported
cannabinoids reached its peak in 2010 when ten coun- synthetic cathinones in 2009. In 2011, this class of sub-
tries reported these substances (Belgium, Bulgaria, stances was also reported by Brazil, Greece, Luxem-
Croatia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Malta, Netherlands, bourg, Moldova, Mongolia, Singapore and Turkey.
Slovakia, Spain and Turkey). Outside Europe, Austra-
lia, Egypt, Israel and Hong Kong SAR reported their
first emergence in 2010. Greece, Moldova, Mongolia 118
Belgium, Bulgaria, Croatia, France, Ireland, Italy, Latvia, Malta, Po-
and Singapore reported first appearance of synthetic land, Portugal, Romania, Russian Federation, Switzerland and the
cannabinoids in 2011. United Kingdom.
24
The Global Spread of New Psychoactive Substances
Ç ÇÇ
ÇÇ
Ç
ÇÇ
ÇÇ
Ç
Ç
Ç
Ç Ç
Ç
ÇÇ
Ç
Ç Ç
Ç
Ç
ÇÇ
Ç Ç
Ç
Ç
ÇÇÇ
Ç Ç
Ç ÇÇ Ç
Ç
Ç
Ç
Ç
ÇÇ
Ç Ç Ç Ç ÇÇ
Ç
Ç
ÇÇ
ÇÇ
Ç
Synthetic cathinones
No data No occurrence Before 2008 2008 2009 2010 2011
25
Global SMART Programme 2013
The data confirmed that all NPS groups - synthet- 3.2 Legal situation
ic cannabinoids, synthetic cathinones, ketamine,
phenethylamines, piperazines, plant-based substances 3.2.1 The international drug control system
and miscellaneous substances - have emerged globally,
except for phenethylamines and synthetic cathinones NPS fall outside the global drug control system and
which were not reported from Africa. However, it are therefore neither included in the schedules of the
should be noted that Africa is the region with the few- 1961 Convention nor in those of the 1971 Conven-
est respondents to the questionnaire – responses were tion. However, some Governments have adopted na-
received from only 10 countries (Angola, Cape Verde, tional or regional responses to address this issue in a
Egypt, Ghana, Mauritius, Nigeria, Seychelles, South need to meet the increasing concerns on the risks that
Africa, Togo, Zimbabwe). Less than 20% of African these substances pose to public health and to address
countries and territories submitted UNODC’s Annu- other various aspects of this problem.
al Reports Questionnaire (ARQ) for 2010.120
Ç
Ç
ÇÇ Ç
Ç
ÇÇ
Ç
ÇÇ Ç
Ç
Ç
Ç
ÇÇ
ÇÇ
Ç ÇÇ
Ç
ÇÇ
ÇÇ
ÇÇÇ
Ç Ç
Ç ÇÇ Ç
Ç
Ç
Ç
Ç
Ç
ÇÇ
Ç Ç Ç Ç ÇÇ
Ç
Ç
ÇÇ
ÇÇ
Ç
Ç
120
Under the United Nations drug control Conventions, Member States
are formally required to provide national drug control related infor-
mation annually to the Secretary-General of the United Nations. The
Commission on Narcotic Drugs, the main drug control policy making
body in the United Nations, developed the Annual Reports Question-
naire (ARQ) to collect this information.
26
The Global Spread of New Psychoactive Substances
As provided for in the 1961 Convention and the 1971 manufacture of, trafficking in, use of, and of prepara-
Convention, whenever a Party or the World Health tions containing NPS is shared through its Europol
Organization (WHO) has information relating to a National Unit and its representative in the Reitox
substance not yet under international control which Network.123 This information is collected by Europol
in its opinion requires that substance to be added to and the EMCDDA and subsequently shared with all
any of the schedules of the Conventions, “it shall no- EU Member States, the European Commission and
tify the Secretary-General and furnish him with the the European Agency for the Evaluation of Medicinal
information in support of that notification”, accord- Products (EMEA). According to article 5 (1), a ‘Joint
ing to article 3(1) of the 1961 Convention and article Report’ shall be prepared by Europol and the EMCD-
2 (1) of the 1971 Convention.121 DA, if either of them or the Council of the European
Union consider that further information on the new
The notification is subsequently transmitted to the psychoactive substance reported is needed.124 This re-
Parties, to the Commission on Narcotic Drugs and to port is then submitted to the Council of the European
the World Health Organization. An assessment of the Union, the EMEA and the European Commission. If
substance is then carried out by WHO and based on considered necessary by the Council of the European
the results of the assessment and the recommendations Union, a ‘Risk Assessment Report’ is prepared by the
on control measures, if any, the Commission may de- Scientific Committee of the EMCDDA. This report,
cide that the substance shall be added to, transferred as provided for in article 6 (4), shall include a com-
from one schedule to another, or removed from any of plete assessment of the health and social risks caused
the schedules of the respective Convention. The deci- by the use of, the manufacture of, and trafficking in
sions of the Commission are subject to review by the the new psychoactive substance, information on any
Economic and Social Council upon the request of a control measure in place in EU Member States and
Party. The Expert Committee on Drug Dependence on any assessment of the NPS in the United Nations
of WHO has reviewed several NPS, for example BZP System, the level of involvement of organized crime,
or ketamine. options for control, the possible consequences of con-
trol measures, and the chemical precursors used for
3.2.2. Regional responses: the European Union the manufacture of the substance.
So far, the only regional response system to the emer- For the purposes of bringing NPS under control, ar-
gence of NPS is the European Early Warning Sys- ticle 8 (1) (2) of the Council Decision 2005/387/JHA
tem (EWS) of the European Union (EU). In 1997, a states that within six weeks from the date on which the
mechanism for rapid exchange of information on ‘new European Commission receive the Risk Assessment
synthetic drugs’, the assessment of their risks and the Report, it shall present an initiative to the Council
application of existing control measures on psychotro- of the European Union to place the new psychoactive
pic substances to ‘new synthetic drugs’ was adopted substance under control. If the European Commis-
by the Council of the European Union (Joint Action sion deems it not necessary to present an initiative on
97/396/JHA). Building upon this decision, Council submitting the new psychoactive substance to control
Decision 2005/387/JHA was adopted in 2005 which measures, such an initiative may be presented by one
applies to all NPS. or more EU Member States. It is for the Council of
the European Union to decide whether to submit the
Council Decision 2005/387/JHA122 provides for an
assessment of the risks associated with NPS in order
123
to permit the measures applicable in the EU Mem- Reitox is the European information network on drugs and drug ad-
diction created at the same time as the EMCDDA. The abbreviation
ber States for control of narcotic and psychotropic ‘Reitox’ stands for the French ‘Réseau Européen d ғInformation sur
substances to be applied also to NPS. According to les Drogues et les Toxicomanies’. European Monitoring Centre on
article 4 (1) (2) of the Council Decision, each EU Drugs and Drug Addiction, Reitox Network (http://www.emcdda.
europa.eu/about/partners/reitox-network)
Member State shall ensure that information on the 124
The report contains preliminary information on the description of
the substance, manufacture, risks associated to its use, involvement
RI RUJDQL]HGFULPHLQWKHPDQXIDFWXUHDQGWUDIÀFNLQJXVHUSURÀOH
121
The wording is identical in both Conventions. control status of the substance at the national level in EU Member
122
Council Decision 2005/387/JHA of 10 May 2005 on the informa- States and on whether or not the substance is under assessment by the
tion exchange, risk-assessment and control of new psychoactive sub- United Nations. Article 5 (2) Council Decision 2005/387/JHA of 10
stances. Council of the European Union (http://eur-lex.europa.eu/ May 2005 on the information exchange, risk-assessment and control
LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=CELEX:32005D0387:EN:NOT) of new psychoactive substances, Council of the European Union
27
Global SMART Programme 2013
new psychoactive substance to control measures. If so, cern to the Tokyo Administration. Subsequently, at
article 9 (1) of the Council Decision provides that EU the national level, the Pharmaceutical Affairs Law was
Member States shall endeavour to take as soon as pos- amended in 2007 to allow control over NPS as “des-
sible, but no later than one year from the date of that ignated substances” prohibiting their advertising, sale,
decision, the necessary measures, in accordance with supply and production. Penalties for the violation of
their national law, to ‘submit’ the new psychoactive this law include imprisonment of up to 5 years and/
substance to control measures and criminal penalties or fines up to 5 million Japanese Yen. The simple pos-
as provided under their legislation by virtue of their session (for personal use) of a “designated substance”
obligations under the international drug control trea- does not constitute an offense. As at November 2012,
ties. As stated in article 9 (3), the obligations set forth 90 NPS are controlled under the Pharmaceutical Af-
in the Council Decision do not preclude the possibil- fairs Law since it came into force in 2007.
ity of individual Member States to maintain or intro-
duce any national control measures on NPS. Up to In New Zealand, the increasing use of benzylpipera-
2012, eleven NPS125 have been included in the Risk zine (BZP)128 raised concern among authorities and
Assessment Reports prepared by EMCDDA in the society about the nature and possible adverse effects
framework of the Council Decision 2005/387/JHA associated with this substance, and called for a legisla-
and the Joint Action 97/396/JHA, 8 of the eleven tive response. However, BZP was not listed under the
substances126 have been subjected to to control mea- Misuse of Drugs Act 1975 since and it had been mar-
sures following a decision of the Council of the Eu- keted as a dietary supplement, it was neither subject
ropean Union. At the time of preparing this report, to a pre-market approval nor to any control on sale or
a new risk assessment on 4-methylamphetamine was distribution.
being conducted by the EMCDDA.127
According to the Misuse of Drugs Act 1975, it is for
3.2.3 National responses to new psychoactive sub- the Expert Advisory Committee on Drugs (EACD) to
stances advise the Minister of Health of New Zealand on drug
classification of any substance.129 In 2004, the classifi-
Outside Europe, several approaches have been taken to cation of BZP was considered, but given the scarcity of
control NPS at the national level. The cases of Japan, information on toxicological aspects and on the long-
New Zealand, the Republic of Korea, and the United terms effects caused by the substance, the issuance of
States are provided below for illustrative purposes. an advice under the terms set forth in the Act130 was
precluded. The Committee concluded that “there is
In Japan, NPS have been available over the Inter- no current schedule of the Misuse of Drugs Act 1975
net since 2004 and marketed directly in the country under which BZP could reasonably be placed”,131 and
around 2009. For the purposes of control, NPS were recommended that further research be conducted into
defined as “new narcotic or psychotropic drugs, in the potential harms associated with the use of BZP,
pure form or in preparation, that are not controlled by and to examine options for new categories of classifi-
the 1948 Cannabis Control Law, the 1951 Stimulants
Control Law, the 1953 Narcotics and Psychotropics
Control Law and the 1964 Opium Law, but which 128
The New Zealand Ministry of Health estimated that 1.5 to 2 million
may pose a public health threat”. The Tokyo Metro- doses had been sold by one distributor in New Zealand between 2001
and 2003.
politan Government responded to this challenge in 129
Section 5AA of the Misuse of Drugs Act 1975
2005 by granting the Governor new legislative powers 130
According to Section 4B of the Misuse of Drugs Act 1975, the Ex-
that allow the adoption of ordinances to ban activities pert Advisory Committee on Drugs must give advice on: “(a) the
likelihood or evidence of drug abuse, including such matters as the
related to the supply and production of NPS of con- prevalence of the drug, levels of consumption, drug seizure trends,
and the potential appeal to vulnerable populations; and (b) the spe-
FLÀFHIIHFWVRI WKHGUXJLQFOXGLQJSKDUPDFRORJLFDOSV\FKRDFWLYHDQG
125
European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction, ‘MBDB, toxicological effects; and (c) the risks, if any, to public health; and (d)
4-MTA, GHB, ketamine, PMMA, 2C-I, 2C-T-2, 2C-T-7, TMA-2, the therapeutic value of the drug, if any; and (e) the potential for use
BZP and mephedrone’, May 2012 (http://www.emcdda.europa.eu/ of the drug to cause death; and (f) the ability of the drug to create
html.cfm/index16776EN.html) physical or psychological dependence; and (g) the international clas-
126
PMMA, 2C-I, 2C-T-2, 2C-T-7, TMA-2, BZP, mephedrone and VLÀFDWLRQDQGH[SHULHQFHRI WKHGUXJLQRWKHUMXULVGLFWLRQVDQGK
4-MTA. any other matters that the Minister considers relevant.
127 131
European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction, ‘2012 New Zealand, Expert Advisory Committee on Drugs (EACD), ‘Ad-
Annual report on the state of the drugs problem in Europe’, Lisbon, vice to the Minister on: Benzylpiperazine (BZP)’, 2004 (http://www.
2012 ndp.govt.nz/moh.nsf/pagescm/569/$File/eacdbzp.pdf)
28
The Global Spread of New Psychoactive Substances
cation through which some level of control and regu- Narcotics since the mid 2000s.135 However, the dra-
lation could be incorporated, without prohibiting ac- matic increase in the volume of newly detected NPS
cess to these substances completely.132 Following these since 2008, prompted an additional Government’s re-
recommendations, the Misuse of Drugs Amendment sponse to strength control over the rapid emergence of
Act, passed in 2005, created a new schedule for ‘re- NPS. In September 2011 a new ‘temporary scheduling
stricted substances’. The substances listed therein were system’, added to the Act on the Control of Narcotics,
then subject to control of manufacture and sale but entered into force. Under the Act, the Korean Food
not prohibited. BZP was the first substance initially and Drug Administration may temporarily sched-
placed under this schedule, and as such, sale restric- ule NPS for a year. The synthetic cathinone MDPV
tions of BZP to minors were enforced as well as con- (3,4-Methylenedioxypyrovalerone) was the first drug
trols on the advertisement and labelling of the prod- subject to temporary schedule at the end of 2011.
uct, but the possession of the drug was still legal.
In the United States, the Controlled Substances Act
After the initial scheduling of BZP, the publication (CSA)136 contains the federal drug policy under which
of further studies on the toxicology of BZP and ad- the manufacture, importation, possession, use and
verse effects associated with the use of this substance distribution of certain substances is regulated. For
resulted in an interim report presented to the EACD, purposes of control, the CSA places all substances
which in response, and based on the new evidence, is- into one of five schedules, based upon the substance’s
sued a follow-up report on BZP in 2006, and advised medicinal value, harmfulness, and potential for abuse
the Health Minister that this substance posed a ‘mod- or dependence. The initial list contained in the Act
erate risk of harm’. BZP was then removed from the has been complemented by legislative amendments,137
‘restricted substances’ schedule, and in 2008, it was but the Act also provides a mechanism for substances
placed in Schedule 3 (Class C ‘Controlled Drugs’),133 to be controlled, added to a schedule, removed from
along with other substances that pose a moderate risk control, reschedule, or transferred from one schedule
of harm, such as cannabis and other piperazines.134 At to another.138 Temporary scheduling of new substanc-
the time of writing, NPS legislation is being drafted es to avoid imminent hazard to public safety is also
in New Zealand. possible under the CSA.139 In 2011, several synthetic
cannabinoids (JWH-018; JWH-073; JWH-200;
In the Republic of Korea, drugs are controlled under CP-47,497; CP-47,497 C8 homologue)140 and some
the ‘Act on the Control of Narcotics’. In 2000, the synthetic cathinones (mephedrone; methylone; and
three major drug laws to control narcotics, psychotro- (MDPV))141 were subject to temporary control.
pic substances, opium and cannabis, i.e. the Narcotics
Act, the Cannabis Control Act, and the Psychotro-
pic Substances Control Act, were combined into this 135
See Article 2(4) (a-b) of the Act on the Control of Narcotics for the
single Act. GHÀQLWLRQRI SV\FKRWURSLFGUXJV136UHJDUGHGDVSV\FKRWURSLFGUXJV
and subject to control include, among others, JWH-018 & its ana-
logues, CP-47497 & C6, C8, C9, BZP, 2C-D, 2C-E, MeOPP, HU-210,
Several NPS, listed as “psychotropic drugs”, had been 4-Acetoxy-DiPT, mCPP, TFMPP, Psilocybin, phencyclidine analogues.
subject to control under the Act on the Control of 136
The CSA was enacted into law as part of the Comprehensive Drug
Abuse Prevention and Control Act of 1970
137
For instance, the Drug Prohibition Act of 2000 amended the Con-
132
New Zealand, Expert Advisory Committee on Drugs (EACD), ‘Ad- trolled Substances Act to direct the emergency scheduling of gamma
vice to the Minister on: Benzylpiperazine (BZP)’, 2004 (http://www. hydroxybutyric acid
138
ndp.govt.nz/moh.nsf/pagescm/569/$File/eacdbzp.pdf) Section 811, Controlled Substances Act of 1970
139
133
Under the Misuse of Drugs Act 1975, a ‘controlled drug’ means any Section 811 (h), Controlled Substances Act of 1970. Based on an in-
VXEVWDQFH SUHSDUDWLRQ PL[WXUH RU DUWLFOH VSHFLÀHG RU GHVFULEHG LQ terim ruling, new substances can be temporarily scheduled up to 12
Schedule 1, Schedule 2, or Schedule 3; and includes any controlled months (with the possibility of six months extension), after which they
drug analogue. Controlled drug analogue means any substance, such can be permanently scheduled, if there is an evaluation and recom-
DVWKHVXEVWDQFHVVSHFLÀHGRUGHVFULEHGLQ3DUWRI 6FKHGXOHWKDW mendation in favour by the Secretary of Health and Human Services.
140
has a structure substantially similar to that of any controlled drug; but United States, Drug Enforcement Administration, ‘Schedules of
GRHVQRWLQFOXGH³DDQ\VXEVWDQFHVSHFLÀHGRUGHVFULEHGLQ6FKHG- FRQWUROOHG VXEVWDQFHV WHPSRUDU\ SODFHPHQW RI ÀYH V\QWKHWLF FDQ-
ule 1 or Schedule 2 or Parts 1 to 6 of Schedule 3; or (b) any pharmacy- nabinoids into Schedule I, Final order’, 21 CFR Part 1308 [Docket
only medicine or prescription medicine or restricted medicine within No. DEA-345F] (http://www.deadiversion.usdoj.gov/fed_regs/
the meaning of the Medicines Act 1981. (Misuse of Drugs Act 1975, rules/2011/fr0301.htm)
Section 2(1)). Schedule 3 Part 1 clause 2 was added on 1 April 2008, 141
United States, Drug Enforcement Administration, ‘Schedules of con-
E\VHFWLRQRI WKH0LVXVHRI 'UXJV&ODVVLÀFDWLRQRI %=3$PHQG- trolled substances: temporary placement of three synthetic cathinones
ment Act 2008 (2008 No 5) into Schedule I’, 21 CFR Part 1308 [Docket No. DEA-357] (http://
134
Section 3A (C) of the Misuse of Drugs Act 1975 www.deadiversion.usdoj.gov/fed_regs/rules/2011/fr1021_3.htm)
29
Global SMART Programme 2013
In addition to the CSA, the United States has a Con- of analogue control.145 For these and other reasons,
trolled Substances Analogue Enforcement Act, i.e. some analysts have considered the analogue system as
‘Federal Analogue Act’, to control substances not an ‘imperfect law’,146 and other legislative approaches
specifically listed in the CSA. The enactment of the have been suggested to address the problem of NPS,
Federal Analogue Act in 1986 was a response to the such as the inclusion of the most problematic groups
spread of fentanyl derivatives, Į-prodine derivatives, of NPS in the CSA,147 or mixing rules and standards
phenethylamines related to MDMA, amphetamines in the Federal Analogue Act.148
and other compounds designed to produce similar ef-
fects to the controlled drugs they mimic.142 3.2.4 Other regulatory frameworks
Under section 802 (32)(A) of the CSA, “controlled The international drug control system laid down in the
substance analogue” is defined as a substance (i) whose United Nations drug control Conventions was founded
chemical structure is substantially similar to the struc- on the basis of concern of public health and social prob-
ture of a scheduled substance; (ii) whose effects are lems resulting from the abuse of certain psychotropic
substantially similar to or greater than the effects of a substances and from the addiction to narcotic drugs,
controlled substance or, (iii) the substance is thought and the need to prevent and combat abuse of such
to have such an effect. The use of analogue control op- substances and the illicit trafficking to which it gives
erates on a substance by substance basis, and therefore rise. For this purpose, State parties to the Conventions
each new substance needs to be assessed individually agreed to take the necessary legislative and administra-
and a Court should decide whether the substance is or tive measures to limit exclusively to medical and sci-
not controlled. Courts in the United States have in- entific purposes the production, manufacture, export,
terpreted the law as meaning that both requirements import, distribution of, trade in, use and possession of
(similarity in the structure and the effects), must be such drugs, and to treat as a punishable offence, when
fulfilled. committed intentionally, any action contrary to a law
or regulation adopted in pursuance of its obligations
The Federal Analogue Act served as a model for oth- under the Conventions.
er analogue systems adopted during the 1980s (in
Canada, New Zealand and parts of Australia), and it Since the adoption of the Conventions, confronted
has been suggested that it might have been effective with the challenges posed by NPS and considering that
in addressing the proliferation of synthetic drugs at traditional drug control systems require time and ba-
that time. While the implementation of the new stan- sic scientific data on the harms posed by NPS to react,
dards-based model closed some of the loopholes of the countries have explored different approaches to regula-
CSA, such as the slow and costly process to issue indi- tion that give more flexibility to existing drug control
vidual prohibitions for each illicit chemical, its imple- systems at the national level or appeal to other regula-
mentation has revealed some theoretical and practical tory frameworks.
problems.143 For instance, the lack of clarity of the
statutory definition of an analogue drug was raised in Several countries have amended their legislation to
a Court Case in 1995, but the Court ruled in favour control the manufacture, trafficking, possession, sale
of the Analogue Act, and deemed it not to be consti-
tutionally vague.144 Moreover, it has been argued that 145
King, L.A., Nutt, D., Singleton, N., and Howard, R., ‘Analogue con-
some unique entities, which are unlike any controlled WUROV$QLPSHUIHFWODZ·,QGHSHQGHQW6FLHQWLÀF&RPPLWWHHRQ'UXJV
drug (in terms of chemical structure), i.e. plant-based United Kingdom Drug Policy Commission, 2012
146
psychoactive substances such as salvia divinorum and Wong, L., Dormont, D. and Matz, H.J., ‘United States Controlled Sub-
VWDQFH $QDORJXH $FW OHJDO DQG VFLHQWLÀF RYHUYLHZ RI DQ LPSHUIHFW
kratom (mitragyna speciosa), are beyond the scope law’, presented to Advisory Council on Misuse of Drugs, 2010
147
For instance, in 2011 a bill was presented in the United States Con-
gress to include two groups of new psychoactive substances (i.e.
142
King, L.A., Nutt, D., Singleton, N., and Howard, R., ‘Analogue con- cathinone derivatives and cannabinoids antagonists) in Schedule I
WUROV$QLPSHUIHFWODZ·,QGHSHQGHQW6FLHQWLÀF&RPPLWWHHRQ'UXJV of the Controlled Substances Act, without relying on the Analogue
United Kingdom Drug Policy Commission, 2012 Act. United States Congress. ‘H.R. 1254--112th Congress: Synthetic
143
Kau, G., ‘Flashback to the federal analogue act of 1986: mixing rules Drug Control Act of 2011’, GovTrack.us (database of federal legis-
and standards in the cauldron’, University of Pennsylvania Law Re- lation), 2011, (http://www.govtrack.us/congress/bills/112/hr1254;
view, 2008, 156, 1078-115 accessed in: October 2012
144 148
United States court of Appeals, United States vs. Allen McKin- Kau, G., ‘Flashback to the federal analogue act of 1986: mixing rules
ney, 1995 (http://law.justia.com/cases/federal/appellate-courts/ and standards in the cauldron’, University of Pennsylvania Law Re-
F3/79/105/555999/) view 2008, 156, 1078-115
30
The Global Spread of New Psychoactive Substances
and use of NPS in the same fashion as with substances Ireland, Italy, Netherlands, Russian Federation, Saudi
controlled under the Conventions, where prohibited Arabia, United Kingdom and United States reported
substances are listed individually. However, the inclu- in the UNODC questionnaire on NPS having used
sion of new substances is often a lengthy process that emergency scheduling to temporarily ban NPS.
requires in most cases a health risk assessment (based
on scientific data and human experience data that in In addition, alternative, effective and proportionate
the case of NPS is often scarce), followed by legislative ways to respond in an equally fast and flexible way to
amendments that usually take several months. For these the emergence of NPS has been reflected in the use of
reasons, some countries have adopted a generic or an other regulatory frameworks. For instance, medicine
analogue system to complement and to give more flex- legislation has been used in at least eight countries, in-
ibility to the individual listing system, which allows the cluding Finland and the Netherlands.152 Respondents
control of groups of substances or similar substances to to the UNODC questionnaire on NPS from Albania,
those individually listed, without the need to appeal to Bahrain, Brunei Darussalam, Bulgaria, and Thailand
a legislative reform. For instance, in 2010, the generic reported the use of Poison Acts. The use of consumer
system was introduced in the United Kingdom to ban safety regulations was reported from Bahrain, Bul-
synthetic cathinones, and was introduced in Hungary garia, Croatia, Hungary, Israel, Italy, Nepal, Poland,
in 2012 to ban NPS temporarily.149 In 2009, synthetic Portugal, Romania, Russian Federation, Togo and the
cannabinoids were defined as a group of substances United Kingdom. Unlike traditional drug control sys-
controlled in Luxemburg and in 2010, Italy developed tems, where the manufacture, trafficking, possession,
a group definition of synthetic cannabinoids and later a sale and use of NPS is usually banned and subject to
group definition of cathinones.150 Ireland also has a ge- criminal provisions, control measures of NPS under
neric system to control NPS. Norway and the United other regulatory frameworks tend to be limited in
States have an analogue system in place but the defini- scope, focusing primarily on the control of the sale
tion of ‘analogue’ differs in the two countries. of NPS.
Governments have also used ‘emergency scheduling’ The different approaches to regulation are varied
to introduce temporary bans on NPS while the leg- among nations, and while some may be considered
islative process is being completed and/or a rigorous more advantageous or effective than others, there are
assessment of the risks is conducted. For instance, in no perfect systems. However, monitoring has proved
Denmark an Executive Order on Euphoriant Sub- useful in providing timely information to make ev-
stances can enter into force in two to three days, in idence-based decisions that respond to the rapid
Germany the Federal Ministry of Health may publish changes that encompass the supply and demand of
a regulation in the Federal Law Gazette (with no ref- NPS.
erence to the Council of Ministers or the Bundesrat)
through a process that takes a few weeks, and in Spain,
the Minister for Health and Consumer Affairs can
prepare an Order that is published in the Spanish Of-
ficial Journal (with no reference to the Parliament) and
the entire process takes between five and 15 days.151
Australia, China, Croatia, Bahrain, Ghana, Hungary,
149
8QLWHG.LQJGRP+RPH2IÀFHFLUFXODU¶$FKDQJHWRWKH
Misuse of Drugs Act 1971: Control of mephedrone and other cathi-
none derivatives’, 2010; Hungary adopted the same approach after the
Government Decree 66/2012 came into effect on April 2012, where-
by a temporary ban on new psychoactive substances was introduced.
150
European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction, ‘2012 152
Mephedrone was controlled through medicine legislation in Finland
Annual report on the state of the drugs problem in Europe’, Lisbon, and the Netherlands before it was subject to a risk assessment in the
2012 framework of the Council Decision on new psychoactive substances
151
Kelleher, C., Christie, R., Lalor, K., Fox, J., Bowden, M. and O’Donnell, of the European Union; BZP has also been controlled under medi-
C., ‘An Overview of New Psychoactive Substances and the Outlets cine legislation in Spain. Austria, Germany, Hungary and the United
Supplying Them’, National Advisory Committee on Drugs, Centre Kingdom, have also used medicine legislation to control synthetic
for Social and Educational Research, Dublin Institute of Technol- cannabinoids. Winstock, A. and Wilkins, C., ‘“Legal highs” The chal-
ogy, Dublin, 2011 (http://www.nacd.ie/images/stories/docs/publi- lenge of new psychoactive substances’, Transnational Institute, Series
cationa/head_report2011_overview.pdf) on Legislative Reform of Drug Policies, 2011, 16, 1-16
31
Global SMART Programme 2013
32
Use of New Psychoactive Substances
4.1. Global use estimates The sample size for the 2011 survey included over
12,000 randomly selected young people (aged 15-24)
The extent of global use of NPS remains unknown. across the 27 EU Member States, who were inter-
Thus far, there are no estimates on the prevalence of viewed by telephone. Youths were asked about their
use of NPS in the general population, but rather lim- perceptions on the availability of NPS, perceived
ited data collected in few countries, with respect to health risks associated to their use, attitudes towards
specific substances and subpopulations. banning or regulating NPS and about the effectiveness
of alternative drug policies.
Concern about the increasing use of NPS and their
potential adverse effects has led to a growing need for Overall, 5% of the participants reported having used
monitoring these substances and several countries have NPS.153 Ireland (16%), Poland (9%), Latvia (8.8%) and
opted for the inclusion of NPS in national drug sur- the United Kingdom (8%), were at the higher end of
veys. Some limitations of these surveys include the lack the country ranking, while Italy (0.8%), Finland (1%)
of common definitions and of representative samples, and Greece (1.6%) were found at the lower end.154
the large and increasing number of substances regard-
ed as NPS, and the differences in legislation among With respect to the supply of NPS, 54% of the respon-
countries. dents who had used NPS reported that they had been
offered the substance by friends, 37% had been offered
4.2. Regional use estimates the substances during a party or in a club, 33% had
purchased them from a specialized shop, and less than
In the framework of the European Union, the at- 7% had bought them over the Internet. Older respon-
titude of youth towards drugs is regularly examined dents were more likely than their younger counterparts
by the Eurobarometer, which analyses public opinion to have been offered such substances at a party or in a
in Member States of the European Union. Drug use club (41% of 22-24 year-olds vs. 32% of 15-18 year-
surveys have been conducted among young people in olds), whereas those who had completed their higher
EU Member States in 2002, 2004 and 2008 (Euroba- education (41% vs. 27% among those who had only
rometer No. 172, 158, and 233). These surveys have completed their primary education at the time of the
studied the attitude of young people toward licit and survey) were more likely to have purchased the sub-
illicit substances including heroin, cocaine, ecstasy, stances from a specialized shop.
cannabis, alcohol and tobacco. In 2011, responding to
recent developments in the EU drug market, the Euro-
barometer “Youth attitudes on Drugs” (No. 330) asked
153
young people for the first time about their experiences The wording of the question was as follows: In certain countries some
new substances that imitate the effects of illicit drugs are being sold as
and attitudes towards new psychoactive substances or legal substances in the form of -for example -powders, tablets/pills or
‘legal highs’. For the purposes of the survey, NPS were herbs. Have you ever used such substances? European Commission,
Youth attitudes on drugs, Flash Eurobarometer 330, 2011, 18
understood as “a large number of new unregulated 154
European Commission, ‘Youth attitudes on drugs’, Flash Euro-
compounds that imitate the effects of illicit drugs (so- EDURPHWHU KWWSHFHXURSDHXSXEOLFBRSLQLRQÁDVK
called new psychoactive substances or ‘legal highs’)”. ÁBBHQSGI
33
Global SMART Programme 2013
100%
80%
60%
United Kingdom
All EU countries
Czech Republic
Luxembourg
Netherlands
Germany
Denmark
Lithuania
Hungary
Romania
Belgium
Slovenia
Slovakia
Sweden
Portugal
Greece
Austria
Estonia
Finland
France
Cyprus
Latvia
Spain
Italy
Bulgaria
Ireland
Malta
Poland
Have used such substances Have never used such substances
Source: Flash Eurobarometer 330. Youth Atudes on Drugs. Analycal report. May 2011.
Base: all respondents, % by country
Young people who reported having used NPS were also 4.3. National use estimates
less likely to recognize the seriousness of the risks as-
sociated with regular and occasional use of various il- Apart from the above-mentioned regional estimates,
licit and licit substances. Sixty percent of those who had national surveys in a general population and/or sub-
never used NPS thought that using ecstasy occasionally populations have also been conducted in few coun-
posed a high risk to a person’s health and 26% saw a tries to estimate the use of NPS. It should be noted,
medium risk. By comparison, only 40% of those who however, that often only a limited number of NPS (or
had used NPS perceived the health risks caused by oc- even just a single one) is included in these estimates.
casional ecstasy use as high, and 34% as medium. A
similar pattern follows the perception of the risks as- In Australia, information on the prevalence of use of
sociated to cannabis use.155 NPS has been included since 2010 in the Drug Trends
in Ecstasy and Related Drug Markets (EDRS) report.
With respect to responding to NPS, only 1% - 4% of The 2011 report presents the most recent findings on
the interviewees considered that no action was need- the markets for ecstasy and related drugs156 based on
ed. However, preferences on whether to ban all NPS, data collected in all states and territories in Australia
to ban only those that pose serious risks to someone’s from surveys with regular ecstasy users, surveys with
health or to regulate them, varied across EU Member key experts who have contact with regular ecstasy users
States. and the analysis of existing data sources that contain
information on ecstasy and related drugs. Although
While there are some limitations of the results, includ- the results from the regular ecstasy users surveys are
ing the small sample size in each State (in most EU
countries the target sample size was 500 respondents,
but in Estonia, Cyprus, Luxembourg, Malta and Slo- 156
“The term ‘ecstasy and related drugs’ includes drugs that are rou-
venia the sample size was 250 respondents) to assess tinely used in the context of entertainment venues and other recre-
actual use and the lack of a common understanding on ational locations including nightclubs, dance parties, pubs and music
festivals. ERD include ecstasy (MDMA, 3,4-methylenedioxymetham-
what constitutes a new psychoactive substance, the sur- SKHWDPLQH PHWKDPSKHWDPLQH FRFDLQH /6' GO\VHUJLF DFLG NHW-
vey nevertheless provides a glimpse into the use of these DPLQH0'$PHWK\OHQHGLR[\DPSKHWDPLQHDQG*+%JDPPD
substances by young people. K\GUR[\EXW\UDWHµ 6LQGLFLFK 1 DQG %XUQV / ¶$XVWUDOLDQ WUHQGV LQ
HFVWDV\DQGUHODWHGGUXJPDUNHWVÀQGLQJVIURPWKHHFVWDV\DQG
UHODWHGGUXJVUHSRUWLQJV\VWHP('56·$XVWUDOLDQ'UXJ7UHQGV6H-
ULHV1R1DWLRQDO'UXJDQG$OFRKRO5HVHDUFK&HQWUH8QLYHUVLW\
155
European Commission, ‘Youth attitudes on drugs’, Flash Euro- RI 1HZ6RXWK:DOHV6\GQH\KWWSQGDUFPHGXQVZHGXDX
EDURPHWHU KWWSHFHXURSDHXSXEOLFBRSLQLRQÁDVK VLWHVQGDUFFPVPHGXQVZHGXDXÀOHVQGDUFUHVRXUFHV1DWLRQDOB
ÁBBHQSGI ('56BÀQDOSGI
34
Use of New Psychoactive Substances
Australia: prevalence of drug and NPS use among regular ecstasy users (REU), 2010 - 2011
45%
40%
35%
30%
25%
20%
15%
10%
5%
0%
Spice Mephedrone Methylone MDPV Ketamine 2C-I 2C-E DOI PMA BZP Datura DMT 5-MeO -DMT
Recent use prevalence 2010 0.0% 16.0% 0.0% 1.0% 12.0% 2.0% 2.0% 1.0% 1.0% 4.5% 1.0% 7.0% 1.0%
Recent use prevalence 2011 1.0% 14.0% 5.0% 2.0% 16.0% 5.0% 4.0% 1.0% 1.0% 2.0% 1.0% 14.0% 2.0%
Lifeme prevalence 2010 0.0% 18.0% 0.0% 1.0% 36.0% 6.0% 3.0% 2.0% 4.0% 5.0% 3.0% 13.0% 2.0%
Lifeme prevalence 2011 1.0% 23.0% 7.0% 2.0% 42.0% 12.0% 8.0% 3.0% 3.0% 6.0% 7.0% 27.0% 6.0%
not representative of ecstasy users and their other drug In 2011, ketamine, DMT (an internationally con-
use in the general population, the data provided is in- trolled substance) and mephedrone were the sub-
dicative of patterns of drug use. In the 2011 EDRS stances with the highest rate of lifetime prevalence.
survey, 574 regular ecstasy users were interviewed. From 2010 to 2011, there was a significant decrease
Participants were recruited primarily through street in recent use of mephedrone (16% vs. 14%). Regular
press adverts and word-of-mouth. ecstasy users reported in 2011 lifetime and recent use
of methylone at 7% and 5% , while only a small num-
According to the findings for 2011, ketamine use re- ber (2%) reported lifetime and recent use of MDPV
mained limited to Victoria, New South Wales and the in the same year. The use of phenethylamines showed
Australian Capital Territory, with 16% of the national significant increases in 2011, however the number re-
sample reporting recent use, 157 a significant increase porting use remained low. Both lifetime (12%) and
from 2010 (12%). A small proportion of regular ec- recent use (5%) of 2C-I (compared to 6% and 2%
stasy users reported the use of some NPS, for example, in 2010) increased as did lifetime (8%) and recent use
synthetic cannabinoids (‘spice’), synthetic cathinones (4%) of 2C-E (compared to 3% and 2% in 2010).
(mephedrone, methylone, MDPV), phenethylamines Six per cent of the participants reported having tried
(2C-I, 2C-E, 2,5-dimethoxy-4-iodoamphetamine a 2C-class drug (apart from those mentioned above)
(DOI)), piperazines (BZP), tryptamines and plant- and thirty participants of the entire sample (5%) re-
based substances (datura). While in 2011, lifetime ported lifetime use of ‘other’ 2C-class drugs, including
and recent use of ‘spice’ was low among the sample 2C-B-Fly, 2C-P, 2C-T-2, 2C-T-7. There was a decline
(1% and <1% respectively), five per cent of the na- in the number of users that reported recent use of
tional sample believed that they have used other form BZP (2% vs. 4.5% in 2010). To a lesser extent, recent
of synthetic cannabinoids.158 use of the plant based substance datura was reported
by three of the participants (1%).159
157
5HFHQWXVHLQWKH('56UHSRUWUHIHUVWRSUHYDOHQFHRI XVHLQWKHSDVW
six months.
158 159
6LQGLFLFK1DQG%XUQV/¶$XVWUDOLDQWUHQGVLQHFVWDV\DQGUHODWHG 6LQGLFLFK1DQG%XUQV/¶$XVWUDOLDQWUHQGVLQHFVWDV\DQGUHODWHG
GUXJ PDUNHWV ÀQGLQJV IURP WKH HFVWDV\ DQG UHODWHG GUXJV UH- GUXJ PDUNHWV ÀQGLQJV IURP WKH HFVWDV\ DQG UHODWHG GUXJV UH-
SRUWLQJV\VWHP('56·$XVWUDOLDQ'UXJ7UHQGV6HULHV1R1D- SRUWLQJV\VWHP('56·$XVWUDOLDQ'UXJ7UHQGV6HULHV1R1D-
WLRQDO'UXJDQG$OFRKRO5HVHDUFK&HQWUH8QLYHUVLW\RI 1HZ6RXWK WLRQDO'UXJDQG$OFRKRO5HVHDUFK&HQWUH8QLYHUVLW\RI 1HZ6RXWK
:DOHV6\GQH\KWWSQGDUFPHGXQVZHGXDXVLWHVQGDUFFPV :DOHV6\GQH\KWWSQGDUFPHGXQVZHGXDXVLWHVQGDUFFPV
PHGXQVZHGXDXÀOHVQGDUFUHVRXUFHV1DWLRQDOB('56B PHGXQVZHGXDXÀOHVQGDUFUHVRXUFHV1DWLRQDOB('56B
ÀQDOSGI ÀQDOSGI
35
Global SMART Programme 2013
36
Use of New Psychoactive Substances
37
Global SMART Programme 2013
United States: prevalence of drug and NPS use among 12th graders, 2010 - 2011
12% 11.4
10%
8%
5.5 5.9
6%
4% 2.9 2.9
1.6 1.7
2% 0.9 0.8
0%
Heroin Ketamine Cocaine Salvia divinorum Synthec cannabinoids
Last- year use prevalence 2010 Last- year use prevalence 2011
38
Use of New Psychoactive Substances
4.5. Internet surveys on the use of new living in small towns. Current users of research chemi-
psychoactive substances cals were especially likely to be experienced and regular
users of various illegal drugs. Overall, the respondents
Internet surveys have been conducted to assess the use named more than 300 different substances which they
of NPS. It should be noted that all known surveys on had tried at least once. More than three out of five re-
NPS have been conducted in Europe and that they are spondents indicated the legal availability of NPS as a
limited by the self-nominating nature of the sample major motivation for use.187
and are therefore unrepresentative of the general popu-
lation. The use of an online method of data collection In the United Kingdom, the British electronic dance
implies that those who respond are likely to be more ac- and clubbing magazine ‘MixMag’ has conducted two
tive online and that some populations with higher than surveys on NPS, in 2009 and 2011. The survey had
average levels of drug use (e.g. the homeless and those been traditionally addressed to young club goers, but
in prison) as well as those with no access to the Internet over the last few years it has attempted to involve a
are excluded. wider segment of the population. The first survey,
carried out in 2009 (results were published in Janu-
In Germany, an online survey on use experiences and ary 2010), collected data of lifetime, last year and last
use patterns of various NPS174 was conducted in 2011. month drug use on 29 substances, including NPS
The survey was addressed to those with drug use ex- such as synthetic cannabinoids, synthetic cathinones
perience and invitations to participate were extended (MDPV, mephedrone, methylone), phenethylamines
to them via social networks, internet shops that offer (2C-I, and 2C-T-7), piperazines (BZP), salvia divi-
legal highs, online forums on drug-related topics and norum and ‘other new psychoactive substances’. Al-
prevention websites. The survey was completed on- though 3,500 responses had been received as of Feb-
line by 860 individuals (89% of the respondents were ruary 2010, the analysis here presented is based on a
male and the average age was 24.2 years) from all over subset of 2,295 UK respondents, the majority of them
Germany. Reported lifetime prevalence of illegal drugs aged between 18-27.178
among the respondents was at 99%. Synthetic canna-
binoids were reportedly the most prevalent new psy- The 2009 survey shows that lifetime and last-month
choactive substance, with a lifetime prevalence of 86%. prevalence of other NPS surpassed the use of illicit
Lifetime prevalence of research chemicals175 was at 39% drugs such as heroin and methamphetamine. Last year
and at 35% for ‘other legal highs’.176 More than half of prevalence showed ketamine as the most common new
the respondents reported having used at least one NPS psychoactive substance (51%), followed by synthetic
in the last month. The users of synthetic cannabinoids cathinones (mephedrone 37.3%), piperazines (BZP
were reportedly older on average and more frequently 12.1%), and, to a lesser extent, plant-based substances
(salvia divinorum 8.9%) and synthetic cannabinoids
(‘spice’ 6.2%).
174
1HZ SV\FKRDFWLYH VXEVWDQFHV ZHUH EURNHQ GRZQ LQ KHUEDO EOHQGV
RWKHU OHJDO KLJKVEDWK VDOWV HWF DQG UHVHDUFK FKHPLFDOV :HUVH % The second Mixmag survey was carried out in 2010,
DQG0RUJHQVWHUQ&¶6KRUWUHSRUW2QOLQHVXUYH\RQWKHWRSLFRI ´OH-
JDOKLJKVµ·&HQWUHIRU'UXJ5HVHDUFK*RHWKH8QLYHUVLW\)UDQNIXUW
with results published in March 2011. More than
am Main, 2011 15,500 people worldwide took part in a similar Mix-
175
Research chemicals refer to “new synthetic drugs that are (at least ac- Mag/the Guardian Drugs Survey, which makes it “the
FRUGLQJWRWKHGHFODUDWLRQVROGLQSXUHIRUPXQGHUWKHLUDFWXDOFKHPL-
FDOQDPH7KHJHQHULFWHUPLVLQGHSHQGHQWRI WKHDFWLYLW\SURÀOHDQG
biggest ever survey of drug use among clubbers”, ac-
in principle, it considers the whole spectrum of all the possible drug cording to the organizers. Three quarters of the re-
effects, even though there are focus areas. Research chemicals are, in spondents were aged between 18-27 and two-thirds
VRPHFDVHVODEHOOHGDV´RQO\IRUUHVHDUFKSXUSRVHVµ:HUVH%DQG
0RUJHQVWHUQ&¶6KRUWUHSRUWRQOLQHVXUYH\RQWKHWRSLFRI ´OHJDO were male (69%). Two NPS were added to the 2010
KLJKVµ·&HQWUHIRU'UXJ5HVHDUFK*RHWKH8QLYHUVLW\)UDQNIXUWDP
Main, 2011
177
176
2WKHUOHJDOKLJKV´LQFOXGHVDOOSURGXFWVH[FHSWFDQQDELVOLNHVPRN- /HJDO KLJKV UHIHU WR V\QWKHWLF FDQQDELQRLGV RWKHU OHJDO KLJKVEDWK
LQJEOHQGVZKLFKDUHPDLQO\GHOLEHUDWHO\ZURQJO\ODEHOOHGDV´EDWK VDOWV HWF DQG UHVHDUFK FKHPLFDOV :HUVH % DQG 0RUJHQVWHUQ &
VDOWVµ´DLUIUHVKHQHUVµ´SODQWIRRGµHWFDQGFRQWDLQV\QWKHWLFSV\- ¶6KRUWUHSRUWRQOLQHVXUYH\RQWKHWRSLFRI ´OHJDOKLJKVµ·&HQWUHIRU
choactive substances. It mostly includes drugs which have stimulant 'UXJ5HVHDUFK*RHWKH8QLYHUVLW\)UDQNIXUWDP0DLQ
178
and entactogenic / empathogenic effects, and are therefore substi- :LQVWRFN$¶%ULHI VXPPDU\RI WKH0L[PDJ·VVXUYH\:LQ-
tutes for popular party drugs’ such as amphetamine, ecstasy/ MDMA VWRFN DQG 0LWFKHVRQ IRU WKH (0&&'$ $QQXDO UHSRUW· KWWS
RUFRFDLQHµ:HUVH%DQG0RUJHQVWHUQ&¶6KRUWUHSRUWRQOLQHVXU- HZVGZLYLVSEH3XEOLFDWLRQVRQQHZSV\FKRDFWLYH
YH\RQWKHWRSLFRI ´OHJDOKLJKVµ·&HQWUHIRU'UXJ5HVHDUFK*RHWKH VXEVWDQFHV0HSKHGURQH%ULHIVXPPDU\RIWKH
8QLYHUVLW\)UDQNIXUWDP0DLQ BPL[PDJVXUYH\SGI
39
Global SMART Programme 2013
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Spice
Ketamine
Salvia divinorum
Methamphetamine
MDPV
Mephedrone
BZP
Heroin
Last Month Last Year Life Time
179
Source: data from the Mixmag Drug Survey, 2009.
Internet survey: last year prevalence of drug and NPS use – Mixmag, 2009 and 2010
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
MDPV
Mephedrone
Ketamine
BZP
MDAI
Methamphetamine
Heroin
Spice
2009 2010
180
Source: data from the Mixmag Drug Survey, 2010.
It should be noted that samples for 2009 and 2010 are slightly different.
179
:LQVWRFN$¶%ULHI VXPPDU\RI WKH0L[PDJ·VVXUYH\:LQ-
VWRFN DQG 0LWFKHVRQ IRU WKH (0&&'$ $QQXDO UHSRUW· KWWS
HZVGZLYLVSEH3XEOLFDWLRQVRQQHZSV\FKRDFWLYH
180
VXEVWDQFHV0HSKHGURQH%ULHIVXPPDU\RIWKH :LQVWRFN $ ¶7KH 0L[0DJ GUXJV VXUYH\· 0L[0DJ /RQGRQ
BPL[PDJVXUYH\SGI KWWSLVVXXFRPPL[PDJIDVKLRQGRFVGUXJVXUYH\
40
Use of New Psychoactive Substances
181
:LQVWRFN $ ¶7KH 0L[0DJ GUXJV VXUYH\· 0L[0DJ /RQGRQ
KWWSLVVXXFRPPL[PDJIDVKLRQGRFVGUXJVXUYH\
182
:LQVWRFN $ ¶7KH 0L[0DJ GUXJV VXUYH\· 0L[0DJ /RQGRQ
KWWSLVVXXFRPPL[PDJIDVKLRQGRFVGUXJVXUYH\
41
Global SMART Programme 2013
42
The Sources of New Psychoactive Substances
5.1 Countries reporting seizures of new Asia (Japan and Singapore) and Oceania (Australia and
psychoactive substances New Zealand) reported having made seizures from each
NPS group. In Europe, seizures were made across the
From a total of 80 countries and territories report- region, from Portugal to the Russian Federation and
ing, 61 (76%) stated having seized NPS, almost half from Norway to Italy.
of those respondents were European countries. Most
countries and territories (45) reported having seized In Africa and Europe, most NPS seizures concerned
synthetic cannabinoids and ketamine (75%), followed synthetic cannabinoids. Ketamine is the most widely
by 42 having seized plant-based substances (68%) and seized NPS in the Americas and Asia. With regard to
39 having seized piperazines (65%). Oceania, all NPS groups of substances have been seized
in Australia and New Zealand. Africa is the only region
Twenty-four countries, 18 from Europe183, two each in the world which did not report the emergence or
from the Americas (Canada and the United States), seizures of synthetic cathinones and phenethylamines.
60
50
45 45
42
39
40
35
33 33
No of countries
30
20
10
0
Plant-based
Synthec cathinones
Piperazines
Miscellaneous
Phenethylamines
Synthec
substances
cannabinoids
Ketamine
183
Belgium, Bulgaria, Croatia, Finland, France, Germany, Ireland, Italy,
*
Latvia, Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Romania, the Russian Federa- Sources are reported by respondents and have not been validated sci-
tion, Spain, Switzerland, Turkey and the United Kingdom HQWLÀFDOO\DVPDQXIDFWXULQJSURGXFWLRQVLWHV
43
Global SMART Programme 2013
Countries with seizures of all NPS groups, Seizures of more than 1 kg of for synthetic
up to 2012 cannabinoids, 2009-2012
20 18
18
14
12
12 10
10
10
8
8
6
6
4 4 3
2 2 2
2 2
0
0 0
Africa Americas Asia Europe Oceania 2009 2010 2011 2012
Source: UNODC quesonnaire on NPS, 2012 Source: UNODC quesonnaire on NPS, 2012
30
25
20
No of countries
15
10
0
Africa Americas Asia Europe Oceania
44
The Sources of New Psychoactive Substances
45
Global SMART Programme 2013
16
16
Cambodia Ɣ
14
14
13 China Ɣ Ɣ Ɣ
12 France Ɣ Ɣ Ɣ
10 Hong Kong SAR Ɣ Ɣ Ɣ Ɣ
8 Hungary Ɣ Ɣ Ɣ
6 India Ɣ Ɣ Ɣ
5
Indonesia Ɣ Ɣ
4
Italy Ɣ Ɣ Ɣ
2
Malaysia Ɣ Ɣ Ɣ Ɣ
0
2009 2010 2011 2012
Myanmar Ɣ Ɣ
Source: UNODC quesonnaire on NPS, 2012 Netherlands Ɣ Ɣ Ɣ
Philippines Ɣ
tions.185 Germany and the United Kingdom have also Singapore Ɣ Ɣ Ɣ Ɣ
reported multi-kilo seizures of mephedrone.186 Seizures Spain Ɣ Ɣ Ɣ Ɣ
of MDPV and 4-methylethcathinone (4-MEC) were Thailand Ɣ Ɣ Ɣ
also reported from European countries. Canada and the United States Ɣ
United States reported numerous seizure cases of syn- 6RXUFH812'&TXHVWLRQQDLUHRQ136$54DQG'$,1$3
thetic cathinones.
(5.3 mt ), India (1 mt) and Malaysia (1.1 mt) in 2009.
Ketamine Outside Asia, significant ketamine seizures are reported
by Canada, where 2.3 mt were seized in 2010. France,
Seizures of ketamine were stable, which might result Hungary, Netherlands and the United States also re-
from the fact that ketamine is a fairly established sub- ported seizures.
stance in ATS markets around the world. Sixteen coun-
tries reported more than 1 kg ketamine seizures in 2009, Phenethylamines
ten Asian countries and territories (Cambodia, China,
India, Indonesia, Malaysia, Myanmar, Philippines, Sin- Most countries reporting more than 1 kg seizures
gapore, Thailand and Hong Kong SAR), five European of phenethylamines are from Europe. From 2009 to
countries (France, Hungary, Italy, Netherlands and 2012, phenethylamines were seized in nine different
Spain) as well as Canada. In 2012, the year for which
Seizures of more than 1 kg of phenethyl-
only partial data is available as the questionnaire was
amines, 2009-2012
circulated in July, France, Malaysia, Singapore, Spain
and Hong Kong SAR reported ketamine seizures. 8
7
No of countries and territories
7
The most significant seizures of ketamine have been
made in Asia, with multi-ton seizures made in China 6
5
5
185 4 4
(XURSHDQ 0RQLWRULQJ &HQWUH IRU 'UXJV DQG 'UXJ $GGLFWLRQ ¶5H- 4
SRUWRQWKHULVNDVVHVVPHQWRI PHSKHGURQHLQWKHIUDPHZRUNRI WKH
&RXQFLO'HFLVLRQRQQHZSV\FKRDFWLYHVXEVWDQFHV·5LVN$VVHVVPHQWV 3
,VVXH/LVERQKWWSZZZHPFGGDHXURSDHXDWWDFKHPHQWV
FIPDWWBB(1B 7'$.(1&B:(%237,0,6(' 2
),/(SGI
(XURSHDQ 0RQLWRULQJ &HQWUH IRU 'UXJV DQG 'UXJ $GGLFWLRQ ¶5H- 1
SRUWRQWKHULVNDVVHVVPHQWRI PHSKHGURQHLQWKHIUDPHZRUNRI WKH
0
&RXQFLO'HFLVLRQRQQHZSV\FKRDFWLYHVXEVWDQFHV·5LVN$VVHVVPHQWV
2009 2010 2011 2012
,VVXH/LVERQKWWSZZZHPFGGDHXURSDHXDWWDFKHPHQWV
FIPDWWBB(1B 7'$.(1&B:(%237,0,6(' Source: UNODC quesonnaire on NPS, 2012
),/(SGI
46
The Sources of New Psychoactive Substances
8
8 with 374 mt, followed by the United States with 90
7
7 mt and Germany with 30.4 mt. ARQ data indicates
6
further that multi-ton khat seizures were reported by
5
4 187
4 .HOOHKHU&&KULVWLH5/DORU.)R[-%RZGHQ0DQG2·'RQQHOO
&¶$QRYHUYLHZRI QHZSV\FKRDFWLYHVXEVWDQFHVDQGWKHRXWOHWVVXS-
3
SO\LQJWKHP·1DWLRQDO$GYLVRU\&RPPLWWHHRQ'UXJV&HQWUHIRU6R-
2 FLDODQG(GXFDWLRQDO5HVHDUFK'XEOLQ,QVWLWXWHRI 7HFKQRORJ\'XE-
OLQ KWWSZZZQDFGLHLPDJHVVWRULHVGRFVSXEOLFDWLRQD
1
KHDGBUHSRUWBRYHUYLHZSGI
0 188
(XURSHDQ 0RQLWRULQJ &HQWUH IRU 'UXJV DQG 'UXJ $GGLFWLRQ DQG
2009 2010 2011 2012 (XURSHDQ 3ROLFH 2IÀFH ¶(0&''$²(XURSRO $QQXDO UHSRUW
RQ WKH LPSOHPHQWDWLRQ RI &RXQFLO 'HFLVLRQ -+$· /LV-
Source: UNODC quesonnaire on NPS, 2012
ERQ KWWSZZZHPFGGDHXURSDHXDWWDFKHPHQWVFIP
DWWBB(1B(0&''$BULVNBDVVHVVPHQWBSGI
47
Global SMART Programme 2013
48
The Sources of New Psychoactive Substances
5.2 Number of new psychoactive sub- At the global level, most reports pertaining to NPS
stances in global markets concern synthetic cathinones, with 684 reports, fol-
lowed by synthetic cannabinoids with 665 reports.
A total of 251 NPS (including ketamine) were re- The highest number of reports in each NPS group
ported to UNODC by 40 countries and territories were received in 2011. In terms of number of sub-
up to 2012. Most of the substances reported globally stances reported, 2012 ranks second, but it has to be
between 2009 and 2012 are synthetic cannabinoids taken into account that 2012 data is limited to the
(60 substances), followed by phenethylamines (58 first 7 months or so, as the questionnaire was circu-
substances) and synthetic cathinones (44 substances). lated in the month of July.
50 44
40
30 25 24
20
20
12
10 4 3
Phencyclidine-type
Synthec
Phenethylamines
Synthec
cathinones
Tryptamines
Others
Plant-based
Piperazines
substances
cannabinoids
Aminoindanes
substances
600
500 437
400
294
300
200
200 161
134
100 34
6
0
Phencyclidine-type
Synthec
cathinones
Synthec
Phenethylamines
Piperazines
Others
Plant-based
Tryptamines
cannabinoids
Aminoindanes
substances
substances
49
Global SMART Programme 2013
NPS reported to EMCDDA, 2009 - 2012 Top five synthetic cannabinoids reported
to UNODC, up to 2012
90
No of new psychoacve susbtances reported
80
80 73 70
70
70
60 57
60
No of reports
49
50 50
41
40 40 37 36
34 34
30 24 30
20 20
10
10
0
2009 2010 2011 2012 0
JWH-018 JWH-073 JWH-250 JWH-081 AM-2201 JWH-210
Source: EMCDDA 2012, 2013 1. JWH-018; (1-pentyl-1H-indol-3-yl)-1-naphthalenyl-methanone 70
2. JWH-073; (1-butyl-1H-indol-3-yl)-1-naphthalenyl-methanone 57
3. JWH-250; 1-(1-pentyl-1H-indol-3-yl)-2-(2-methoxyphenyl)-ethanone 37
4. JWH-081; (4-methoxy-1-naphthalenyl)(1-pentyl-1H-indol-3-yl)-methanone 36
In countries of the European Union, the emergence 5. AM-2201; [1-(5-fluoropentyl)-1H-indol-3-yl]-1-naphthalenyl-methanone 34
5. JWH-210; (4-ethyl-1-naphthalenyl)(1-pentyl-1H-indol-3-yl)-methanone 34
of NPS is monitored by the EMCDDA which review
Source: UNODC quesonnaire on NPS, 2012
new substances reported by Member States of the
European Union. The number of substances has con-
tinuously increased over the years, whereas in 2009 States, found that most belonged to the JHW class; in
only 24 substances were reported, 41 were formally 2010, 63 per cent of them were identified as JWH-018,
notified in 2010, 49 in 2011 and 73 NPS reported followed by JWH-250 (14%) and JWH-073 (9%).195
in 2012.191,192 In 2010 and 2011, about two thirds of
the newly notified substances reported were synthetic Synthetic cathinones
cannabinoids or synthetic cathinones.
Respondents to the UNODC questionnaire on NPS
Synthetic cannabinoids reported 44 different synthetic cathinones. The most
frequently reported substance is mephedrone.
Respondents to the UNODC questionnaire on NPS
reported 60 different synthetic cannabinoids, the most Mephedrone and MDPV are the most widespread syn-
frequently reported substance being JWH-018. thetic cathinones. Analysis from NFLIS in the United
States show the upsurge of these substances within a
The Republic of Korea reports that 74 per cent of all very short time. Whereas in 2009, only 34 reports of
synthetic cannabinoids analysed by the Customs Labo- synthetic cathinones were received, this number in-
ratory between January 2009 to August 2012 belonged creased to 628 reports of synthetic cathinones in 2010.
to the JWH class.193 Similarly, data on synthetic canna- Most were mephedrone (48%), followed by MDPV
binoids submitted through the National Forensic Lab- (40%).196 At 29 per cent, MDPV is the most frequently
oratory Information System (NFLIS)194 of the United detected synthetic cathinone analysed by the Customs
Laboratory of the Republic of Korea.197
191
(XURSHDQ0RQLWRULQJ&HQWUHIRU'UXJVDQG'UXJ$GGLFWLRQ¶$Q- 195
8QLWHG 6WDWHV 'UXJ (QIRUFHPHQW $GPLQLVWUDWLRQ ¶6SHFLDO UHSRUW
QXDOUHSRUWRQWKHVWDWHRI WKHGUXJVSUREOHPLQ(XURSH·/LVERQ synthetic cannabinoids and synthetic cathinones reported in NFLIS
192
(XURSHDQ0RQLWRULQJ&HQWUHIRU'UXJVDQG'UXJ$GGLFWLRQDQG(X- 1DWLRQDO )RUHQVLF /DERUDWRU\ ,QIRUPDWLRQ 6\VWHP ·
URSHDQ3ROLFH2IÀFH¶(8GUXJPDUNHWVUHSRUW$VWUDWHJLFDQDO\VLV· 'HSDUWPHQWRI -XVWLFH6SULQJÀHOGKWWSZZZGHDGLYHUVLRQ
7KH+DJXH XVGRMJRYQÁLVU[BV\QWKSGI
193
<XN6¶'HVLJQHUGUXJVLWXDWLRQDQGDFWLYLWLHVRI FXVWRPVODERUDWR- 8QLWHG 6WDWHV 'UXJ (QIRUFHPHQW $GPLQLVWUDWLRQ ¶6SHFLDO UHSRUW
ULHV LQ .RUHD· .RUHD &XVWRPV 6HUYLFH SUHVHQWHG DW WKH *URXS RI synthetic cannabinoids and synthetic cathinones reported in NFLIS
European Customs Laboratories workshop on designer drugs, Berlin, 1DWLRQDO )RUHQVLF /DERUDWRU\ ,QIRUPDWLRQ 6\VWHP ·
²6HSWHPEHU 'HSDUWPHQWRI -XVWLFH6SULQJÀHOGKWWSZZZGHDGLYHUVLRQ
194
7KH1DWLRQDO)RUHQVLF/DERUDWRU\,QIRUPDWLRQ6\VWHP1)/,6LVD XVGRMJRYQÁLVU[BV\QWKSGI
197
SURJUDPPHRI WKH2IÀFHRI 'LYHUVLRQ&RQWURORI WKH'UXJ(QIRUFH- <XN6¶'HVLJQHUGUXJVLWXDWLRQDQGDFWLYLWLHVRI FXVWRPVODERUDWR-
PHQW $GPLQLVWUDWLRQ WKDW V\VWHPDWLFDOO\ FROOHFWV GUXJ LGHQWLÀFDWLRQ ULHV LQ .RUHD· .RUHD &XVWRPV 6HUYLFH SUHVHQWHG DW WKH *URXS RI
UHVXOWVIURPGUXJFDVHVFRQGXFWHGE\VWDWHDQGORFDOIRUHQVLFODERUD- European Customs Laboratories workshop on designer drugs, Berlin,
WRULHVDFURVVWKH86 ²6HSWHPEHU
50
The Sources of New Psychoactive Substances
Top five synthetic cathinones reported to Top five piperazines reported to UNODC,
UNODC, up to 2012 up to 2012
80 80
70 68 70 70
65 64
61
60 60
No of reports
No of reports
53
50 50
40 38 40
35
30 30 27
22
20 20
10 10
0 0
4-MMC MDPV bk-MDMA 4-MEC 4-FMC mCPP BZP TFMPP pFPP MBZP
1. 4-MMC; Mephedrone (4-methylmethcathinone) 68 1. mCPP; 1-(3-Chlorophenyl)piperazine 70
2. MDPV; 3,4-Methylenedioxypyrovalerone 61 2. BZP; 1-Benzylpiperazine 65
3. bk-MDMA; Methylone 53 3. TFMPP; 1-(3-Trifluoromethylphenyl)piperazine 64
4. 4-MEC; 4-Methylethcathinone 38 4. pFPP; 1-(4-Fluorophenyl)piperazine 27
5. 4-FMC; 4-Fluoromethcathinone (flephedrone ) 35 5. MBZP; 1-Benzyl-4-methylpiperazine 22
Source: UNODC quesonnaire on NPS, 2012 Source: UNODC quesonnaire on NPS, 2012
10
5
198
8QLWHG 6WDWHV 'UXJ (QIRUFHPHQW $GPLQLVWUDWLRQ ¶6SHFLDO UHSRUW
0
4-FA 2C-E 2C-I PMMA 2C-C 4-FMA emerging 2C-phenethylamines, piperazines, and tryptamines in
1. 4-FA; 4-Fluoroamphetamine 36 1)/,6 1DWLRQDO )RUHQVLF /DERUDWRU\ ,QIRUPDWLRQ 6\VWHP
2. 2C-E; 4-ethyl-2,5-dimethoxyphenethylamine 33 · 'HSDUWPHQW RI -XVWLFH 6SULQJÀHOG KWWSVZZZQÁLV
3. 2C-I; 4-iodo-2,5-dimethoxyphenethylamine 31
4. PMMA; p-Methoxymethamphetamine 29 GHDGLYHUVLRQXVGRMJRY 'HVNWRS0RGXOHV5HSRUW'RZQORDGV5H-
5. 2C-C; 4-Chloro-2,5-dimethoxyphenethylamine 18 SRUWV1)/,6B65B(PHUJLQJB,,SGI
5. 4-FMA; 4-Fluoromethamphetamine 18
199
(XURSHDQ0RQLWRULQJ&HQWUHIRU'UXJVDQG'UXJ$GGLFWLRQ¶¶%=3
Source: UNODC quesonnaire on NPS, 2012 DQGRWKHUSLSHUD]LQHV·GUXJSURÀOHVKWWSZZZHPFGGDHXURSDHX
SXEOLFDWLRQVGUXJSURÀOHVE]S
51
Global SMART Programme 2013
No of reports
quently reported substance is salvia divinorum. The 15
15
multitude of other plant-based substances, that were
reported by the respondents were country-specific,
10
with only up to four countries reporting them.
5
Top three plant-based substances report-
ed to UNODC, up to 2012 0
DMAA MDAI Dimethocaine 2-DPMP 5-MeO-DPT
50 1. DMAA; 1,3-Dimethylamylamine (Others) 23
47 2. MDAI; 5,6-Methylenedioxy-2-aminoindane (Aminoindane) 21
45 3. Dimethocaine; 3-(Diethylamino)2,2-dimethylpropyl4-aminobenzoate (Others) 19
45
4. 2-DPMP; 2-(Diphenylmethyl)piperidine (Others) 18
5. 5-MeO-DPT; 5-Methoxy-N,N-dipropyltryptamine (Tryptamine) 15
40 38
Source: UNODC quesonnaire on NPS, 2012
35
No of reports
30
25
5.3 Perceived sources* of new psycho-
20
active substances and the role of the In-
15 ternet
10
5 The primary region from where NPS originate was
0 identified to be Asia, followed by Europe, the Ameri-
Salvia Khat Kratom
cas, Africa and Oceania. In Asia, China and India are
1. Salvia - salvia divinorum - active ingredient: salvinorin A 47
2. Khat- catha edulis - active ingredient: cathinones and cathine 45 frequently named as sources of NPS whereas in Europe,
3. Kratom - mitragyna speciosa Korth - active ingredient : mitragynine 38
52
The Sources of New Psychoactive Substances
Sources are reported by the respondents and have not The significant distributional capacity of the Internet
been validated scientifically as manufacturing/produc- is evidenced in studies which have estimated online
tion sites. NPS availability. Internet snapshots produced by EM-
CDDA have shown an increase in the online availabil-
The mode of trafficking named by most respondents ity of NPS over the years, with the number of online
was trafficking by air (30 countries) followed by traf- shops increasing from 170 in January 2010, to 314
ficking by mail (24 countries), without any regional shops in January 2011 and 690 online shops in Jan-
variations. uary 2012. Little information is provided to users on
the type of substance that is being bought. A 2011
The Internet was named as a source of NPS from all review of UK-based websites selling NPS showed that,
regions. The significant informational, promotional in many cases, sellers fail to list ingredients, side effects
and distributional capacity of the Internet plays an im- or drug interactions of the advertised product.203
portant role in the NPS market and global web-based
marketing and distribution distinct from illegal street The Internet serves as a repository of information for
markets has developed in past years.201 several groups of people. Drug users can obtain infor-
mation through online forums, chat rooms and blogs
The Internet offers many advantages to NPS suppliers and find out about new products. They can also com-
as it provides access to a vast number of potential us- municate with other users on their experiences, the
ers, suppliers do not need large up-front investments effects of the substances as well as the recommended
and can retain some level of anonymity. In addition, sources and avenues of delivery. 204 On the other hand,
suppliers may be able to bypass the laws of different the Internet is also used frequently by health and law
countries, thus making enforcement or legal action enforcement authorities to expand their knowledge on
in response to their activities very difficult. Products the subject. Respondents from 62 countries and ter-
sold on the Internet may also stay under the radar for ritories (out of 71) to the UNODC questionnaire on
some time as illustrated in the case of ‘spice’, a prod- NPS indicated, for example, that their level of knowl-
uct containing synthetic cannabinoids. Initially sold edge on the manufacturing process for NPS is low and
largely over the Internet and specialized shops, its dis- that the Internet is frequently used to learn about syn-
tribution took place in a ‘grey zone’ where the poten- thesis routes and other fact pertaining to NPS.
tially responsible institutions (public health authori-
ties, consumer protection agencies or the competent ,GHQWL¿FDWLRQ RI QHZ SV\FKRDFWLYH
authorities for medicinal products) did not assume substances
direct responsibility.202
Respondents from 60 countries and territories pro-
NPS trafficking modes vided information on the methods used in the iden-
tification of NPS. Most respondents indicated using
Air 30 chemical analysis techniques (49), followed by refer-
ence standards (33) and online databases (19).
Mail 24
53
Global SMART Programme 2013
Reference standards 33
Online database 19
Physical appearance 15
Packaging 15
Labelling 15
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
matography - mass spectrometry (GC-MS), which which serve as a measurement base for similar sub-
enables the separation of mixtures of molecules into stances. The results of NPS identification are based on
individual components, followed by identification matches achieved through mass spectra libraries and
and quantification individually. The data collected mass spectra sourced from other agencies.205 Reference
from electron ionization mass spectrometry is checked standards can be obtained from commercial sources.
against fragmentation libraries. Liquid chromatogra- It may also be possible to make reference materials
phy–mass spectrometry (LC–MS) also has been used from internal sources, e.g. from seized materials. Most
to analyse NPS. Other analytical techniques reported respondents indicated that their main source of refer-
by laboratories are high performance liquid chro- ence standards were commercial sources.
matography (HPLC) and fourier transform infrared
spectroscopy (FTIR). Nuclear magnetic resonance However, even the availability of commercial refer-
(NMR) spectrometry has been employed by the labo- ence standards is limited. In addition, with the high
ratories for identification as well as elucidation of the number of NPS circulating in the market, a large
chemical structure of substances. All of these methods stock is required to keep up to date with the latest
have their limitations, with GC-MS, for example, it emergent substances. The cost is high, to stock up on
is not always possible to distinguish between different the top 10 substances costs several thousand dollars
synthetic cannabinoids from the JWH class. Various which may be beyond the financial resources avail-
difficulties are encountered in identifying the active able to many drug analysis laboratories in developed
ingredients of NPS due to the presence of isomers and and developing countries alike. Obtaining reference
possible similarities between certain compounds of standards from internal sources such as seizures, on
the same class. the other hand, may present further challenges, as
Reference standards
205
.HOOHKHU & &KULVWLH 5 /DORU . )R[ - %RZGHQ 0 DQG
2·'RQQHOO & ¶$Q RYHUYLHZ RI QHZ SV\FKRDFWLYH VXEVWDQFHV DQG
Reference standards are a useful tool in the identifica- WKHRXWOHWVVXSSO\LQJWKHP·1DWLRQDO$GYLVRU\&RPPLWWHHRQ'UXJV
tion of drugs and NPS. These standards are certified &HQWUHIRU6RFLDODQG(GXFDWLRQDO5HVHDUFK'XEOLQ,QVWLWXWHRI 7HFK-
samples of NPS with the highest quality and purity QRORJ\'XEOLQKWWSZZZQDFGLHLPDJHVVWRULHVGRFV
SXEOLFDWLRQDKHDGBUHSRUWBRYHUYLHZSGI
54
The Sources of New Psychoactive Substances
36
35
30
26
25
20
15
10
5
0
Commercial sources Internal sources
Online database
Physical appearance
55
Global SMART Programme 2013
56
Annexes
Annex 1. New psychoactive substances reported to UNODC in 2012
Annex 2. Synthetic cannabinoids
Annex 3. Synthetic cathinones
Annex 4. Ketamine
Annex 5. Phenethylamines
Annex 6. Piperazines
Annex 7. Plant-based substances
Annex 8. Aminoindanes
Annex 9. Phencyclidine-type substances
Annex 10. Tryptamines
Annex 11. Others
Global SMART Programme 2013
ABBREVIATIONS
ALB Albania
AUS Australia
BGR Bulgaria
BHR Bahrain
BRA Brazil
CAN Canada
CHE Switzerland
CHL Chile
CRI Costa Rica
EGY Egypt
ESP Spain
FIN Finland
GBR United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland
HKG China, Hong Kong Special Administrative Region
HRV Croatia
HUN Hungary
IDN Indonesia
IRL Ireland
ISR Israel
ITA Italy
LVT Latvia
MDA Republic of Moldova
MYS Malaysia
NLD Netherlands
NOR Norway
NZL New Zealand
OMN Oman
POL Poland
PRT Portugal
ROU Romania
RUS Russian Federation
SGP Singapore
SVK Slovakia
FYROM The former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia
TGO Togo
TUR Turkey
USA United States of America
58
Annex 1. New psychoactive substances reported to UNODC in 2012
a) Synthetic cannabinoids
59
JWH-251 CAN; NLD; USA 3
60
Common name Reporting countries Total
AB-001 CAN; CHE; IRL; ISR; NZL; OMN; ROU 7
CRA-13 AUS; ROU; RUS 3
JWH-175 CAN 1
JWH-307 ITA; TUR 2
STS 135 RUS 1
UR-144 AUS; PRT 2
XLR11 NOR; PRT 2
Global SMART Programme 2013
b) Synthetic cathinones
c) Phenethylamines
p-Methoxymethamphetamine AUS; BGR; ESP; FIN; GBR; HKG; IRL; NLD; NOR 9
61
4-Methylamphetamine ESP; GBR; HRV; NLD; TGO 5
62
Common name Reporting countries Total
N-methyl-5-APB NLD 1
4-methylmethamphetamine ROU 1
Methylthienylpropamine AUS; CAN; FIN; GBR; NOR 5
Phenethylamine BGR; CAN; NLD 3
2-Phenylpropanamine NLD 1
2C-C FIN; NLD; NOR; USA 4
2C-C-NBOMe AUS; CAN; FIN; NLD; NOR; NZL 6
Global SMART Programme 2013
2C-D FIN 1
2C-D-NBOMe NOR 1
2C-E AUS; CAN; ESP; FIN; NLD; NOR; USA 7
2C-I AUS; CAN; ESP; FIN; GBR; NLD; USA 7
2C-P FIN; NOR 2
2C-T-4 FIN; NOR 2
2C-T-7 NOR 1
25I - NBOMe FIN 1
2,5-dimethoxy-4-chloroamphetamine FIN 1
2,5-dimethoxy-4-iodoamphetamine AUS; NLD 2
N-Benzyl-1-phenethylamine ESP 1
Bromo-Dragonfly FIN 1
Camfetamine FIN; ISR 2
d) Piperazines
63
64
f ) Miscellaneous
i) Aminoindanes
Common name Reporting countries Total
5,6-Methylenedioxy-2-aminoindane AUS; BGR; FIN; GBR 4
5-Iodo-2-aminoindane FIN; LVT 2
iii) Tryptamines
Common name Reporting countries Total
4-AcO-DALT FIN 1
4-AcO-DET FIN; NLD 2
4-AcO-DiPT FIN; NOR 2
4-AcO-DMT FIN 1
4-AcO-DPT FIN 1
4-AcO-MiPT FIN; NOR 2
4-AcO-MET CAN; FIN 2
5-HO-DMT (Bufotenine) GBR; NOR 2
4-HO-MiPT FIN 1
4-HO-MET NOR 1
5-HTP FIN; NLD 2
5-MeO-DALT AUS; GBR; NLD; PRT 4
5-MeO-DPT BGR; FIN; ISR; NLD; USA 5
5-MeO-MiPT AUS; NOR 2
5-MeO-AMT ESP 1
DiPT FIN 1
αMT FIN; NLD; NOR; RUS 4
iv) Others
65
Global SMART Programme 2013
66
Annex 2. Synthetic cannabinoids (60 substances)
a) Classical cannabinoid
OH
H OH
H
O
b) Nonclassical cannabinoids
OH
OH
R2
R3
R4
R1
CAS Molecular
Common name Chemical name R1 R2 R3 R4
number Formula
rel-2[(1S,3R)-3-hydroxycyclohexyl]-5-(2-methyloctan-2-yl)
CP-47,497 70434-82-1 C21H34O2 CH3 H H H
phenol
rel-2[(1S,3R)-3-hydroxycyclohexyl]-5-(2-methylheptan-2-yl)
CP-47,497-C6 - C20H32O2 H H H H
phenol
CP-47,497-C8 rel-2-[(1S,3R)-3-hydroxycyclohexyl]-5-(2-methylnonan-2-yl)
70434-92-3 C22H36O2 C2H5 H H H
Synonym: Cannabicyclohexanol phenol
Annex 2. Synthetic cannabinoids
67
68
CAS Molecular
Common name Chemical name R1 R2 R3 R4
number Formula
rel-2[(1S,3R)-3-hydroxycyclohexyl]-5-(2-methyldecan-2-yl)
CP-47,497-C9 - C23H38O2 C3H7 H H H
phenol
rel-2-((1R,2R,5R)-5-hydroxy-2-(3-hydroxypropyl)cyclohexyl)- 3-hydroxy
CP-55,940 83003-12-7 C24H40O3 CH3 H H
5-(2-methyloctan-2-yl)phenol propyl
rel-2-[(1S,3R)-3-hydroxy-5,5-dimethylcyclohexyl]-5-(2-
Dimethyl CP-47,497-C8 - C24H40O2 C2H5 CH3 CH3 H
methylnonan-2-yl)phenol
Global SMART Programme 2013
c) Aminoalkylindoles
i) Naphthoylindoles
R1'
R3'
R2'
O
N
CAS Molecular
Common name Chemical name R1’ R2’ R3’
number Formula
[1-[(1-methyl-2-piperidinyl)methyl]-1H-indol-3-yl]-1- 1-methyl-2-
AM-1220 137642-54-7 C26H26N2O H H
naphthalenyl-methanone piperidinyl
[1-[(1-methylazepan-3-yl)methyl]-1H-indol-3-yl]-1- 1-methylazepan-
AM-1220 azepane isomer - C26H26N2O H H
naphthalenyl-methanone 3-yl
[1-(5-fluoropentyl)-1H-indol-3-yl]-1-naphthalenyl-
AM-2201 335161-24-5 C24H22FNO H 4-fluorobutyl H
methanone
AM-2232 3-(1-naphthalenylcarbonyl)-1H-Indole-1-pentanenitrile 335161-19-8 C24H20N2O H butanenitrile H
(2-methyl-1-pentyl-1H-indol-3-yl)-1-naphthalenyl-
JWH-007 155471-10-6 C25H25NO H C4H9 CH3
methanone
(2-methyl-1-propyl-1H-indol-3-yl)-1-naphthalenyl-
JWH-015 155471-08-2 C23H21NO H C2H5 CH3
methanone
JWH-018
(1-pentyl-1H-indol-3-yl)-1-naphthalenyl-methanone 209414-07-3 C24H23NO H C4H9 H
Synonym: AM678
CAS Molecular
Common name Chemical name R1’ R2’ R3’
number Formula
(1-(5-chloropentyl)-1H-indol-3-yl)(naphthalen-1-yl)
JWH 018 N-(5-chloropentyl) - C24H22ClNO H 4-chlorobutyl H
methanone
(1-(5-hydroxypentyl)-1H-indol-3-yl)(naphthalen-1-yl)-
JWH 018 N-(5-hydroxypentyl) - C24H23NO2 H 4-hydroxybutyl H
methanone
JWH-019 (1-hexyl-1H-indol-3-yl)-1-naphthalenyl-methanone 209414-08-4 C25H25NO H C5H11 H
[1-(4-penten-1-yl)-1H-indol-3-yl]-1-naphthalenyl-
JWH-022 209414-16-4 C24H21NO H 3-buten-1-yl H
methanone
JWH-073 (1-butyl-1H-indol-3-yl)-1-naphthalenyl-methanone 208987-48-8 C23H21NO H C3H7 H
JWH-073 (4-methylnaphthyl) (1-butyl-1H-indol-3-yl)(4-methylnaphthalen-1-yl)-
- C24H23NO CH3 C3H7 H
Synonym: JWH 122 N-butyl analog methanone
(4-methoxy-1-naphthalenyl)(1-pentyl-1H-indol-3-yl)-
JWH-081 210179-46-7 C25H25NO2 CH3O C4H9 H
methanone
(4-methyl-1-naphthalenyl)(1-pentyl-1H-indol-3-yl)-
JWH-122 619294-47-2 C25H25NO CH3 C4H9 H
methanone
JWH-122 (5-fluoropentyl)
[1-(5-fluoropentyl)-1H-indol-3-yl](4-methyl-1-
Synonyms: MAM2201; AM2201 1354631-24-5 C25H24FNO CH3 4-fluorobutyl H
naphthalenyl)-methanone
4-methylnaphthyl analog
(1-(5-hydroxypentyl)-1H-indol-3-yl)(4-methylnaphthalen-1-
JWH 122 N-(5-hydroxypentyl) - C25H25NO2 CH3 4-hydroxybutyl H
yl)-methanone
JWH-200 [1-[2-(4-morpholinyl)ethyl]-1H-indol-3-yl]-1-naphthalenyl- 4-morpholinyl
103610-04-4 C25H24N2O2 H H
Synonym: WIN 55,225 methanone methyl
JWH-210 (4-
ethyl-
1-
naphthalenyl)(1-
pentyl-
1H-
indol-
3-
yl)-
methanone 824959-81-1 C26H27NO C2H5 C4H9 H
(4-bromonaphthalen-1-yl)(1-pentyl-1H-indole-3-yl)-
JWH-387 207227-49-4 C24H22BrNO Br C4H9 H
methanone
(4-chloronaphthalen-1-yl)(1-pentyl-1H-indole-3-yl)-
JWH-398 1292765-18-4 C24H22ClNO Cl C4H9 H
methanone
JWH-412 (4-fluoronaphthalen-1-yl)(1-pentyl-1H-indole-3-yl)-methanone - C24H22FNO F C4H9 H
Annex 2. Synthetic cannabinoids
69
70
c) Aminoalkylindoles
ii) Benzoylindoles
R1''
R2'' R4''
R3''
O
N
Global SMART Programme 2013
Molecular
Common name Chemical name CAS number R1’’ R2’’ R3’’ R4’’
Formula
AM-694 [1-(5-fluoropentyl)-1H-indol-3-yl](2-iodophenyl)-methanone 335161-03-0 C20H19FINO H I 4-fluorobutyl H
(2-iodophenyl)[1-[(1-methyl-2-piperidinyl)methyl]-1H-indol-3- 1-methyl-2-
AM-2233 444912-75-8 C22H23IN2O H I H
yl]-methanone piperidinyl
RCS-4
Synonyms: SR-19; OBT-199; (4-methoxyphenyl)(1-pentyl-1H-indol-3-yl)-methanone 1345966-78-0 C21H23NO2 CH3O H C4H9 H
BTM-4; E-4
RCS-4 ortho isomer
Synonym: RCS-4 2-methoxy (2-methoxyphenyl)(1-pentyl-1H-indol-3-yl)-methanone - C21H23NO2 H CH3O C4H9 H
isomer
R3'''
R2''' R4'''
R1'''
O
N
Molecular
Common name Chemical name CAS number R1’’’ R2’’’ R3’’’ R4’’’
Formula
JWH-201 2-(4-methoxyphenyl)-1-(1-pentyl-1H-indol-3-yl)-ethanone 864445-47-6 C22H25NO2 C4H9 H H CH3O
71
72
d) Others
CAS Molecular
Common name Chemical name
number Formula
AB-001
1-adamantyl (1-pentyl-1H-indol-3-yl)methanone - C23H31NO
Synonym: JWH-018 (adamantyl)
AKB48
1-pentyl-N-tricyclo[3.3.1.13,7]dec-1-yl-1H-indazole-3-carboxamide 1345973-53-6 C23H31N3O
Synonym: APINACA
Global SMART Programme 2013
AM-356
Synonym: R-1 Methanandamide; (R)-(+)- N-(2-hydroxy-1R-methylethyl)-5Z,8Z,11Z,14Z-eicosatetraenamide 157182-49-5 C23H39NO2
Arachidonyl-1’-Hydroxy-2’-Propylamide
[1-[(1-methyl-2-piperidinyl)methyl]-1H-indol-3-yl]tricyclo[3.3.1.13,7]dec-1-yl-
AM-1248 335160-66-2 C26H34N2O
methanone
CRA-13
1-naphthalenyl[4-(pentylox)-1-naphthalenyl]-methanone 432047-72-8 C26H24O2
Synonyms: CB-13; SAB-378
4-[4-(1,1-dimethylheptyl)-2,6-dimethoxyphenyl]-6,6-dimethyl-bicyclo[3.1.1]hept-2-
HU-308 256934-39-1 C27H42O3
ene-2-methanol
JWH-175 3-(1-naphthalenylmethyl)-1-pentyl-1H-indole 619294-35-8 C24H25N
JWH-307 (5-(2-fluorophenyl)-1-pentylpyrrol-3-yl)-naphthalen-1-yl-methanone 914458-26-7 C26H24FNO
JWH-370 [5-(2-methylphenyl)-1-pentyl-1H-pyrrol-3-yl]-1-naphthalenyl-methanone 914458-22-3 C27H27NO
Org 27569 5-chloro-3-ethyl-1H-indole-2-carboxylic acid [2-(4-piperidin-1-yl-phenyl)-ethyl]-amide - C24H28ClN3O
Org 27759 5-fluoro-3-ethyl-1H-indole-2-carboxylic acid [2-(4-dimethylamino-phenyl)-ethyl]-amide - C21H24FN3O
Org 29647 5-chloro-3-ethyl-1H-indole-2-carboxylic acid (1-benzyl-pyrrolidin-3-yl)-amide - C22H24ClN3O
STS-135
Synonym: N-adamantyl-1-fluoropentylindole-3- 1-(5-fluoropentyl)-N-tricyclo[3.3.1.13,7]dec-1-yl-1H-indole-3-carboxamide 1354631-26-7 C24H31FN2O
Carboxamide
UR-144
(1-pentyl-1H-indol-3-yl)(2,2,3,3-tetramethylcyclopropyl)-methanone 1199943-44-6 C21H29NO
Synonym: KM-X1
UR-144 N-(5-chloropentyl) (1-(5-chloropentyl)-1H-indol-3-yl)(2,2,3,3-tetramethylcyclopropyl)methanone - C21H28ClNO
URB597 (3’-(aminocarbonyl)[1,1’-biphenyl]-3-yl)-cyclohexylcarbamate 546141-08-6 C20H22N2O3
XLR11
(1-(5-fluoropentyl)-1H-indol-3-yl)(2,2,3,3-tetramethylcyclopropyl)-methanone 1364933-54-9 C21H28FNO
Synonym: 5-fluoro UR-144
Annex 3. Synthetic cathinones (44 substances)
CAS
Common name Abbreviation Chemical name R1 R2 R3 R4
number
2-(allylmethylamino)-1-(3,4- 3,4-methylene
N-Allylmethylone - - allyl CH3 H
methylenedioxyphenyl)propan-1-one dioxy
3,4-Dimethylmethcathinone 1-(3,4-dimethylphenyl)-2-methylaminopropan-
3,4-DMMC - H CH3 H 3,4-dimethyl
1-one
Annex 3. Synthetic cathinones
73
74
CAS
Common name Abbreviation Chemical name R1 R2 R3 R4
number
Global SMART Programme 2013
1-(3,4-methylenedioxyphenyl)-2-(1-pyrrolidinyl) 3,4-methylene-
3,4-Methylenedioxypyrovalerone MDPV 687603-66-3 NR1R2 = N C2H5
pentan-1-one dioxy
3,4-Methylenedioxy-α-pyrrolidinobutyro- 1-(3,4-methylenedioxyphenyl)-2-(1-pyrrolidinyl) 3,4-methylene-
MDPBP 24622-60-4 NR1R2 = N CH3
phenone butan-1-one dioxy
3,4-Methylenedioxy-α-pyrrolidinopropio- 1-(3,4-methylenedioxyphenyl)-2-(1-pyrrolidinyl) 3,4-methylene-
MDPPP 24698-57-5 NR1R2 = N H
phenone propan-1-one dioxy
3-Methylethcathinone
3-MEC 2-ethylamino-1-(3-methylphenyl)propan-1-one - H C 2 H5 H 3-CH3
4-Methylethcathinone
4-MEC 2-ethylamino-1-(4-methylphenyl)propan-1-one 1225617-18-4 H C 2 H5 H 4-CH3
75
76
CAS
Common name Abbreviation Chemical name R1 R2 R3
number
Global SMART Programme 2013
1-(4-methylphenyl)-2-(1-pyrrolidinyl)propan-1-
4-Methyl-α-pyrrolidinopropiophenone MPPP 1313393-58-6 NR1R2 = N H 4-CH3
one
1-Naphthalen-1-yl-2-pyrrolidin-1-ylpentan-
- 1-naphthalen-1-yl-2-pyrrolidin-1-ylpentan-1-one - NR1R2 = N C2H5 2,3-phenyl
1-one
CAS
Common name Abbreviation Chemical name R1 R2
number
Iso-ethcathinone - 1-ethylamino-1-phenyl-propan-2-one - C2H5 H
77
Global SMART Programme 2013
78
Annex 4. Ketamine
6740-88-1 (free Cl
base)
2-(2-chlorophenyl)-2-(methylamino)cyclohexan-
Ketamine - 1867-66-9 (
1-one NH
hydrochloride
salt) O
Annex 4. Ketamine
79
Global SMART Programme 2013
80
Annex 5. Phenethylamines (58 substances)
R4 R3
R5 H
N
R1
R6 R8R2
R7
CAS
Common name Abbreviation Chemical name R1 R2 R3 R4 R5 R6 R7 R8
number
1-benzofuran-4-ylpropan-2-
4-(2-Aminopropyl)benzofuran 4-APB - H CH3 H H H H −O−CH=CH−
amine
1-benzofuran-5-ylpropan-2-
5-(2-Aminopropyl)benzofuran 5-APB - H CH3 H H −CH=CH−O− H H
amine
1-benzofuran-6-ylpropan-2-
6-(2-Aminopropyl)benzofuran 6-APB - H CH3 H H −O−CH=CH− H H
amine
6-(2-Aminopropyl)-2,3- 1-(2,3-dihydro-1-benzofuran-6-
6-APDB 152623-93-3 H CH3 H H −O−CH2−CH2− H H
dihydrobenzofuran yl)propan-2-amine
2-(3-bromo-2,5-dimethoxy-4-
Bromo-STP - - H H H OCH3 Br CH3 OCH3 H
methylphenyl)ethanamine
2-(3,4-dimethoxyphenyl)propan-
3,4-Dimethoxyamphetamine - 120-26-3 H CH3 H H OCH3 OCH3 H H
2-amine
2-(3,4-dimethoxyphenyl)-N-
3,4-Dimethoxymethamphetamine DMMA - CH3 CH3 H H OCH3 OCH3 H H
methylpropan-2-amine
N,N-dimethyl-1-phenylpropan- NHR1=
N,N-Dimethylamphetamine, DMA 4075-96-1 CH3 H H H H H H
2-amine dimethyl
N,N-dimethyl-1-phenylethan- NHR1=
N,N-Dimethylphenethylamine - 1126-71-2 H H H H H H H
2-amine dimethyl
1-(2-fluorophenyl)propan-2-
2-Fluoroamphetamine 2-FA 1716-60-5 H CH3 H F H H H H
amine
1-(3-fluorophenyl)propan-2-
3-Fluoroamphetamine 3-FA 1626-71-7 H CH3 H H F H H H
amine
Annex 5. Phenethylamines
4-FA, 1-(4-fluorophenyl)propan-2-
4-Fluoroamphetamine 459-02-9 H CH3 H H H F H H
81
PFA amine
CAS
82
Common name Abbreviation Chemical name R1 R2 R3 R4 R5 R6 R7 R8
number
N-methyl-1-(3-fluorophenyl)
3-Fluoromethamphetamine 3-FMA 1049677-77-1 CH3 CH3 H H F H H H
propan-2-amine
N-methyl-1-(4-fluorophenyl)
4-Fluoromethamphetamine 4-FMA 351-03-1 CH3 CH3 H H H F H H
propan-2-amine
N-ethyl-1-(4-methoxyphenyl)
p-Methoxyethylamphetamine PMEA 14367-46-5 C2H5 CH3 H H H OCH3 H H
propan-2-amine
Methoxyphenamine, OMMA N-methyl-1-(2-methoxyphenyl)
93-30-1 CH3 CH3 H OCH3 H H H H
2-Methoxymethamphetamine propan-2-amine
Global SMART Programme 2013
N-methyl-2-phenylpropan-1-
Phenpromethamine - 93-88-9 CH3 H CH3 H H H H H
amine
2-Phenylpropanamine, β-Me-PEA
2-phenylpropan-1-amine 582-22-9 H H CH3 H
(β-methylphenethylamine)
2,4,5-Trimethoxyamphetamine 1-(2,4,5-tirmethoxyphenyl)-
TMA-2 1083-09-6 H CH3 H OCH3 H OCH3 OCH3 H
propan-2-amine
2,4,6-Trimethoxyamphetamine 1-(2,4,6-trimethoxyphenyl)
TMA-6 15402-79-6 H CH3 H OCH3 H OCH3 H OCH3
propan-2-amine
1
&ŽƌƚŚĞƉƵƌƉŽƐĞƐŽĨƚŚŝƐƌĞƉŽƌƚ͕ƚŚĞƐƵďƐƚĂŶĐĞŚĂƐďĞĞŶƉůĂĐĞĚŝŶƚŚĞƉŚĞŶĞƚŚLJůĂŵŝŶĞĐĂƚĞŐŽƌLJƚŽŝůůƵƐƚƌĂƚĞƚŚĞƐůŝŐŚƚŵŽĚŝĮĐĂƟŽŶƚŽƚŚĞƉĂƌĞŶƚƉŚĞŶĞƚŚLJůĂŵŝŶĞŐƌŽƵƉ͘
H
H3CO N
R3
R1 OCH3
R2
CAS
Common name Chemical name R1 R2 R3
number
2C-C 4-chloro-2,5-dimethoxyphenethylamine 88441-14-9 Cl H H
1-(4-chloro-2,5-dimethoxyphenyl)-N-[(2-
2C-C-NBOMe - Cl H CH2C6H5OCH3
methoxyphenyl)methyl]-2-ethanamine
1-(4-methyl-2,5-dimethoxyphenyl)-N-[(2-
2C-D-NBOMe - CH3 H CH2C6H5OCH3
methoxyphenyl)methyl]-2-ethanamine
2C-E 4-ethyl-2,5-dimethoxyphenethylamine 71539-34-9 C2H5 H H
83
SCH3
84
CAS
Common name Chemical name R1 R2 R3
number
2C-T-2 4-ethylthio-2,5-dimethoxyphenethylamine 207740-24-7 SC2H5 H H
H
N-Benzyl-1-phenethylamine N-Benzyl-1-phenethylamine 38235-77-7 N
O
NH2
1-(4-Bromofuro[2,3-f][1]benzofuran-8-yl)propan-2-
Bromo-Dragonfly 502759-67-3
amine
Br
O
O
NH2
2C-B-fly 2-(8-bromo-2,3,6,7-tetrahydrofuro [2,3-f ][1]
178557-21-6
benzofuran-4-yl)ethanamine
Br
O
O
NH2
3C-B-fly 1-(8-bromo-2,3,6,7-tetrahydrobenzo[2,3-f ][1]
-
benzofuran-4-yl)-propan-2-amine
Br
O
NH
M-ALPHA, 1-Methylamino-1-(3,4- 1-Methylamino-1-(3,4-methylenedioxyphenyl) O
-
Annex 5. Phenethylamines
methylenedioxyphenyl)propane propane
O
85
Global SMART Programme 2013
86
Annex 6. Piperazines (12 substances)
R1
N
N
R2
CAS
Common name Abbreviation R1 R2
number
1-Benzylpiperazine BZP 2759-28-6 Ph-CH2 H
87
88
R2 R1
R3 N N R5
R4
CAS
Common name Abbreviation R1 R2 R3 R4 R5
number
Global SMART Programme 2013
2
DĞKWWǁĂƐŽŶůLJƌĞƉŽƌƚĞĚĂƐĂŐĞŶĞƌŝĐĐŽŵƉŽƵŶĚŝŶǁŚŝĐŚƚŚĞƐƉĞĐŝĮĐŝƐŽŵĞƌǁĂƐŶŽƚŝŶĚŝĐĂƚĞĚ͕ĂŶĚĂƐƐƵĐŚĐŽƵŶƚĞĚĂƐŽŶĞƐƵďƐƚĂŶĐĞ͘&ŽƌŝůůƵƐƚƌĂƟǀĞƉƵƌƉŽƐĞƐ͕ƚŚĞƐĞǀĞƌĂůƉŽƐŝƟŽŶŝƐŽŵĞƌƐŚĂǀĞďĞĞŶŚĞƌĞŝŶĐůƵĚĞĚ͘
3
DĞWWǁĂƐŽŶůLJƌĞƉŽƌƚĞĚĂƐĂŐĞŶĞƌŝĐĐŽŵƉŽƵŶĚŝŶǁŚŝĐŚƚŚĞƐƉĞĐŝĮĐŝƐŽŵĞƌǁĂƐŶŽƚŝŶĚŝĐĂƚĞĚ͕ĂŶĚĂƐƐƵĐŚĐŽƵŶƚĞĚĂƐŽŶĞƐƵďƐƚĂŶĐĞ͘&ŽƌŝůůƵƐƚƌĂƟǀĞƉƵƌƉŽƐĞƐ͕ƚŚĞƐĞǀĞƌĂůƉŽƐŝƟŽŶŝƐŽŵĞƌƐŚĂǀĞďĞĞŶŚĞƌĞŝŶĐůƵĚĞĚ͘
Annex 7. Plant-based substances (20 substances)
Hawaiian Baby Woodrose Argyreia nervosa ergine (d-lysergic acid amide (LSA))
4
KĨƚŚĞϭϴŝƐŽůĂƚĞĚĂŶĚŝĚĞŶƟĮĞĚŬĂǀĂůĂĐƚŽŶĞƐ͕LJĂŶŐŽŶŝŶ͕ŵĞƚŚLJƐƟĐŝŶ͕ĚŝŚLJĚƌŽŵĞƚŚLJƐƟĐŝŶ͕ĚŝŚLJĚƌŽŬĂǁĂŝŶ͕ŬĂǁĂŝŶ͕ĂŶĚĚĞƐŵĞƚŚŽdžLJLJĂŶŐŽŝŶĂƌĞƚŚĞƐŝdžŵĂũŽƌŽŶĞƐ͘
5
KǀĞƌϮϱĂůŬĂůŽŝĚƐŚĂǀĞďĞĞŶŝƐŽůĂƚĞĚĨƌŽŵŬƌĂƚŽŵ͖ŵŝƚƌĂŐLJŶŝŶĞŝƐƚŚĞƉƌŝŵĂƌLJĂĐƟǀĞĂůŬĂůŽŝĚŝŶƚŚĞƉůĂŶƚ͘
Annex 7. Plant-based substances
89
90
Common name Binomial name Active ingredient/s
CAS
Common name Abbreviation Chemical name Structure
number
O
6,7-Dihydro-5H-cyclopenta[f][1,3]benzodioxol-
5,6-Methylenedioxy-2-aminoindane MDAI 132741-81-2 NH2
6-amine O
91
Global SMART Programme 2013
92
Annex 9. Phencyclidine-type substances (4 substances)
CAS
Common name Abbreviation Chemical name Structure
number
OCH3
3-Methoxyeticyclidine 3-MeO-PCE 2-(3-methoxyphenyl)-2-(ethylamino)cyclohexane - HN
H3C
OCH3
3-Methoxyphencyclidine 3-MeO-PCP 1-[1-(3-methoxyphenyl)cyclohexyl]piperidine 72242-03-6 N
OCH3
Annex 9. Phencyclidine-type substances
93
Global SMART Programme 2013
94
Annex 10. Tryptamines (25 substances)
R5 R4
R1
N
R2
RD
N
H
CAS
Common name Chemical name R1 R2 Rα R4 R5
number
4-AcO-DALT 4-Acetoxy-N,N-diallyltryptamine - H2C=CH-CH2 H2C=CH-CH2 H OC(O)CH3 H
95
96
CAS
Common name Chemical name R1 R2 Rα R4 R5
number
4-OHT 4-Hydroxytryptamine 570-14-9 H H H OH H
CAS
Common name Abbreviation Chemical name Structure
number
HO
1,4-Butanediol 1,4-BD 1,4-Butanediol 110-63-4 OH
NH2
NH2
5-(2-Aminopropyl)indole 5-IT or 5-API 1-(1H-indol-5-yl)propan-2-amine 3784-30-3
N
H
O
Methyl-1-methyl-1,2,5,6-tetrahydropyridine-3-
Arecoline AREC N O
carboxylate 63-75-2
Annex 11. Others
97
98
CAS
Common name Abbreviation Chemical name Structure
number
S
Benzothiophenylcyclohexylpiperidine, 1-[1-(1-Benzothiophen-2-yl)cyclohexyl] 112726-66-6 N
BTCP, BCP
Benocyclidine piperidine
Global SMART Programme 2013
O N
2-Bromo-LSD, (8β)-2-Bromo-N,N-diethyl-6-methyl-9,10- H
2-Bromo-N,N-diethyl-D-lysergamide 478-84-2
BOL-148 didehydroergoline-8-carboxamide
Br
N
H
HO
3-{2-[(Dimethylamino)methyl]-1-
O-Desmethyltramadol O-DT 73986-53-5 OH
hydroxycyclohexyl}phenol
N
O
3-(Diethylamino)2,2-dimethylpropyl4-
Dimethocaine - 94-15-5 O N
aminobenzoate
H 2N
N
3-(2-Ethylphenyl)-2-methyl-4-(3H)- N
Etaqualone - 7432-25-9
quinazolinone
O
N-Ethyl-ketamine (N-ethyl-nor-ketamine) NH
NEK 2-(2-chlorophenyl)-2-(ethylamino)cyclohexanone 1354634-10-8 O
Cl
O O
H
Ethylphenidate EP/EPH Ethylphenyl (2-piperidinyl)acetate 57413-43-1 N
N
N
S N
4-(2-chlorophenyl)-2-ethyl-9-methyl-6H-
Etizolam - 40054-69-1 N
thieno[3,2-f ][1,2,4]triazolo[4,3-a][1,4]diazepine
Cl
N F
(3-oxo)-8-Methyl-8-azabicyclo[3.2.1]oct-3-yl4-
Fluorotropacocaine - 172883-97-5 O
fluorobenzoate
Annex 11. Others
99
100
CAS
Common name Abbreviation Chemical name Structure
number
O
O
(S)-5,6,6a,7-tetrahydro-1,2,9,10-tetramethoxy-6-
Glaucine - 475-81-0 O
methyl-4H-dibenzo[de,g]quinoline
O N
H
Global SMART Programme 2013
O
MXE or 3-MeO- (RS)2-(3-Methoxyphenyl)-2-(ethylamino)
Methoxetamine 1239943-76-0
2-Oxo-PCE cyclohexanone NH
O
2201-24-3 H2 N
1-Phenylcyclohexanamine PCA 1-Phenylcyclohexylamine
NH2
N
Tropacocaine - 8-Methyl-8-azabicyclo[3.2.1]oct-3-ylbenzoate 537-26-8 O
O
H
N N
6-Methyl-2-[(4-methylphenyl)amino]-1-
URB754 - 86672-58-4 O
benzoxazin-4-one
O
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