BIOLOGY II GUIDE

1. Define homeostasis
- The tendency of an organism or a cell to regulate its internal conditions, usually by
a system of feedback controls, so as to stabilize its health and functioning,
regardless of the outside changing conditions.

2. What is the feedback system?

- The body uses sensors spread all around the body to monitor its properties and
help maintain them at ideal values.

3. Mention the two different types of feedback and give one

example of each.
- Negative feedback: Almost all homeostatic control mechanisms are negative
feedback mechanisms. When the effectors oppose to the change, these leading to
the variable to be pushed back towards its set point. Its goal is to maintain the
“ideal values” of homeostasis. Example: Thermoregulation, a process that allows
the body to maintain its core internal temperature.

- Positive feedback: The effectors enhance the change, these leading to the variable
being pushed even farther from the set point value. Its goal is to de-stabilize the
system. Example: Child birth. During labor, a hormone called oxytocin is released
that intensifies and speeds up contractions. The increase in contractions causes
more oxytocin to be released and the cycle goes on until the baby is born. The birth
ends the release of oxytocin and ends the positive feedback mechanism.

4. Mention 3 examples of homeostasis in our body

- Acid-Base Balance: The body controls the amounts of acids and bases in the blood.
- Body Temperature : Regulation of body temperature.
- Glucose Concentration: This refers to the amount of glucose (blood sugar ) present
in the bloodstream. The body uses glucose as a source of energy, but too much or
too little glucose in the bloodstream can cause serious complications. The body
uses hormones to regulate glucose concentration. Insulin reduces glucose
concentration, while cortisol, glucagon and catecholamines increase glucose
concentration.
5. These are the components of the feedback system
- Receptor: monitors a controlled condition/receives signals from the brain
- Control Center: determines next action/ signals the effector
- Effector: Receives directions from the control center and produces a response that
changes controlled condition
- Negative Feedback Loop: original stimulus reversed
- Positive Feedback Loop: original stimulus intensified

6. Name the 6 steps of the digestive process

- Ingestion, Secretion, Mixing and Propulsion, Digestion, Absorption and Defecation.

7. Mention the main enzymes for carbohydrates, proteins and

lipids
- Carbohydrates: Amylase
- Proteins: Protease (trypsin)
- Lipids: Lipase

8. What is the name of the enzyme present in the mouth that

begins the process of digestion?
- Salivary Amylase

9. What is the basic function of the SI?

- In this organ the digestion of proteins, fats and carbohydrates is completed.

10. What is the basic function of the LI?

- It reabsorbs water from undigested food material and processess waste material.
Also capable of absorbing vitamins.

11. Mention the two processes of digestión

- Mechanical Digestion: mastication and peristalsis

- Chemical Digestion: responsible for the breakdown of complex molecules (fats,

proteins, carbohydrates).

12. Which are the 4 steps of the mechanical digestion?

- Bite/chew, Pharynx, Esophagus and Stomach.
13. What organ is inside the lip but outside the theeth?
- The tounge.

14. Mention the 4 pairs of salivary glands and their function

- Parotid glands produce a serous, watery secretion.
- Submaxillary (mandibular) glands produce a mixed serous and mucous secretion.
- Sublingual glands secrete a saliva that is predominantly mucous in character.

15. What is peristalsis?

- It is involuntary contractions responsible for the movement of food through the
esophagus and intestinal tracts.

16. Mention the Digestive System Accesory Organs

- Pancreas, Liver and Gallbladder.

17. Name the parts of the SI and the LI

- Small Intestine: duodenum, jejunum and ileum.
- Large Intestine: cecum, appendix, colon, rectum and anus.

18. Where does the digestion of a) carbohydrates b) proteins

and c) lipids begin?
- Carbohydrates: Mouth
- Proteins: Stomach
- Lipids: Mouth, Stomach and is mostly completed in the small intestine.

19. Mention the functions of blood

- Transportation, Protection and Regulation.

20. Which are the main elements of blood, and their function?
- Plasma is the main component of blood and consists mostly of water, with
proteins, ions, nutrients, and wastes mixed in. It carries glucose, vitamins,
cholesterol, amino acids, triglycerides and fatty acids to every cell of the body.
- Red blood cells are responsible for carrying oxygen and carbon dioxide.
- Platelets are responsible for blood clotting.
- White blood cells are part of the immune system and function in immune
response.

21. What is the main function of a)RBC and b)WBC?

- RBC: They transport oxygen from the lungs to all of the living tissues of the body
and carry away carbon dioxide. 
- WBC: Some white cells (called lymphocytes) are the first responders for our
immune system. They seek out, identify, and bind to alien protein on bacteria,
viruses, and fungi so that they can be removed. Other white cells (called
granulocytes and macrophages) then arrive to surround and destroy the foreign
cells.

22. How many types of WBC exist and name the main function
of each
- Granulocytes: Granulocytes are phagocytes, that is they are able to ingest foreign
cells such as bacteria, viruses and other parasites. These cells have granules of
enzymes which help to digest the invading microbes. Granulocytes account for
about 60% of our white blood cells.
- Monocytes: Monocytes can develop into two types of cell:
Dendritic cells are antigen-presenting cells which are able to mark out cells that are
antigens (foreign bodies) that need to be destroyed by lymphocytes. Macrophages
are phagocyte cells which are larger and live longer than neutrophils. Macrophages
are also able to act as antigen-presenting cells.
- Lymphocytes: Lymphocytes are cells which help to regulate the body's immune
system. The main types of lymphocytes are: B lymphocytes (B cells) and T
lymphocytes (T cells).

23. What is the average life of a)RBC and b)WBC?

- RBC: 100 to 120 days.

- WBC: 13 to 20 days.

24. Mention all the blood types (including the Rh factor)

- Group A (+,-), Group B (+,-), Group AB (+,-), Group O (+,-) and Group RH (+,-).
25. Which is the hemoglobine function?
- Hemoglobin is the main protein in mature red blood cells. The major role of
hemoglobin is to carry oxygen from the lungs to the tissues and return carbon
dioxide (CO2) from the tissue to the lungs.

26. Mention the function of the lympatic system

- The lymphatic system is a network of tissues and organs that help rid the body of
toxins, waste and other unwanted materials. The primary function of the lymphatic
system is to transport lymph, a fluid containing infection-fighting white blood cells,
throughout the body.
 
27. What is the lymph?
- Lymph is a fluid made of: White blood cells, especially lymphocytes, the cells that
attack bacteria in the blood and Fluid from the intestines called chyle, which
contains proteins and fats. It circulates throughout the tissues to cleanse them and
keep them firm, then it get drain away through the lymphatic system.

28. Which organs are involved in the lymphatic system?

- Spleen, Thymus, Tonsils, Peyer´s patches, Lymph nodes and Lymphatic vessels.

29. What is the function of a lymph node?

- Lymph nodes serve two major functions in the body. They filter lymph and assist
the immune system in building an immune response. 

30. Where are the T-cells produced?

- T cells originate in the bone marrow and mature in the thymus.

31. What is the relationship between stress and the immune

system?
- Stress can provoke a weakness on the immune system. There are two main ways
that stress has a direct, negative effect on the immune system: It creates chronic
inflammatory conditions and it lowers the immunity of those who otherwise might
have a healthy immune system.
32. Why is the a)spleen and b)thymus important?
- Spleen: It is important because it stores the lymphocytes to proliferate and do
their job of surveillance, it cleans the blood, it removes old red blood cells and
platelets, it helps in recycling red blood cells components, it stores erytropoiesis in
the fetus and stores blood and platelets.
- Thymus: system, it serves a vital role in the development and functioning of T-
lymphocytes or T cells (important type of white blood cells).

33. What is the innate immune system?

- The innate immune system is made of defenses against infection that can be
activated immediately once a pathogen attacks. The innate immune system is
always general, or nonspecific, meaning anything that is identified as foreign or
non-self is a target for the innate immune response.

34. What are the functions of the urinary system?

- Produces, stores and eliminates urine (fluid excreted by the kidneys).

35. Mention the parts of the urinary system and their function
- Two kidneys: Their function is to remove liquid waste from the blood, keep a
stable balance of salts and other substances in the blood and produce
erythropoietin (hormone that aids the formation of red blood cells)
- Two ureters: These narrow tubes carry urine from the kidneys to the bladder.
- Bladder: This triangle shaped, hollow organ is located in the lower abdomen. It is
held in place by ligaments that are attached to other organs and the pelvic bones.
The bladder's walls relax and expand to store urine, and contract and flatten to
empty urine thought the urethra.
- Two sphincter muscles- these circular muscles help keep urine from leaking by
closing tightly like a rubber band around the opening of the bladder.
- Nephron- functional unit of the kidney the structure that actually produces urine in
the process of removing waste and excess substances from the blood.
- Nerves in the bladder- The nerves alert a person when it is time to urinate or
empty the bladder.
- Urethra- This tube allows urine to pass outside the body. The brain signals the
bladder muscles to tighten, which squeezes urine out of the bladder. The brain
signals the sphincter muscles to relax to let urine exit the bladder through the
urethra. When all the signals occur in the correct order, normal urination occurs.

36. Is the smallest functional unit level in the kidneys?

- Nephron

37. Describe the 4 basic processes to create urine

1. The Glomerulus Filters Water and Other Substances from the Bloodstream
2. The Filtration Membrane Keeps Blood Cells and Large Proteins in the Bloodstream

3. Reabsorption Moves Nutrients and Water Back into the Bloodstream

4. Waste Ions and Hydrogen Ions Secreted from the Blood Complete the Formation of
Urine
5. Urine Is 95% Water

38. How is urine eliminated?

- Nerves in the bladder are stimulated as the bladder fills with urine and becomes
larger, which in turn stimulates the need to urinate. When you urinate,
the brain signals the bladder muscles to tighten, squeezing urine out of the
bladder. 

39. Urine is excreted from the body through the

- Kidneys

40. What is the main function of the respiratory system?

- Taking in oxygen and expelling carbon dioxide, Gas exchange, regulating blood pH,
contains receptors for smell and produces sound.

41. Describe the organs involved in the respiratory system

- Upper respiratory tract: Nose and nasal cavity (moistens the air and prevents the
entrance of dust). Pharynx (prevents chocking).
- Lower respiratory tract: Larynx (produces the sound for the voice). Trachea
(divides the air for both lungs). Bronchi (last filter to clean the air). Lungs (main
function: gas exchange).

42. Mention the 3 phases of respiration

- Pulmonary ventilation: Process of moving air into and out of the lungs to change
and refresh gas in the lungs.
- External Respiration: Process of exchanging gas (O2 and CO2) between the blood
and alveoli.
- Internal respiration: Gas exchanges made between blood and tissue cells.

43. Where is your voice produced?

- Larynx
44. What is the main function of the a)pharynx b)larynx
c)lungs?
- Pharynx: It allows for the movement of air from the nose and mouth to the larynx
in the process of breathing.
- Larynx: It allows air to be directed into the respiratory organs for gas exchange.
The larynx is also the organ that is responsible for producing vocal sounds.
Prevents food and drink from entering the respiratory system.
- Lungs: Allow us to take in and expel air.

45. Mention the relationship between smoking and

emphysema
- Emphysema is one of the most common diseases that results from smoking
cigarettes. Emphysema is a progressive lung disease that destroys the capillary
blood vessels. When this happens, it limits the amount of air that you can get into
your lungs because air and blood can’t mix, which reduces the exchange of oxygen
and carbon dioxide.

46. They are responsible for gas Exchange

- Lungs

47. Mention the main functions of the a)PNC and b)CNS

- PNC: The PNS consists of the nerves and ganglia outside of the brain and spinal
cord. The main function of the PNS is to connect the CNS to the limbs and organs,
serving as a communicator between the brain and spinal cord and the rest of the
body.
- CNS: The central nervous system is the part of the nervous system consisting of the
brain and spinal cord. The central nervous system integrates information it
receives from, and coordinates and influences the activity of all parts of the bodies.

48. What is the function of the neuron?

- They are responsible for the transmission of the messages/information carried by
the Nervous System that are electrical signals called impulses.

49. Mention the 3 types of neurons

- Sensory neurons: carry impulses from the sense organs (smell, taste, sight, touch,
etc.).
- Motor neurons: carry impulses from the brain.
- Interneurons: neurons in the brain and spinal cord.

50. Mention the structure of the neuron

- Soma: body of the neuron.
- Dendrite: receives the chemical and electrical impulses.
- Axon: sends messages to other neurons.