The framework required to provide anchorage to musculature in

animals is called skeleton. In animals two types of skeletons are

heard to find, such as exoskeleton and the endoskeleton. In
vertebrate the hallmark of skeleton is that it has two divisions
such as, axial skeleton and appendicular skeleton. The skeleton may
be divided regionally in details as:

 Axial skeleton
a. Notochord and vertebral column
b. Ribs and sternum
c. Skull and visceral skeletons
 Appendicular skeleton
a. Pectoral and pelvic girdles
b. Skeleton of paired fins and limbs
c. Skeleton of median fins of fishes

The endoskeleton is histologically composed of chief mineralized

tissues called bones (from osteoblasts), cartilage (from
chondroblasts), and enameloids (from ameloblasts or odontoblasts).
[Blasts stand for embryonic cellsor primordial tissue cells]

In another page later the definitions of bones, cartilages, dentin,

dermal bones, tendons, ligaments and heterotopic bones will be
mentioned in details.

VERTEBRAL COLUMN:

1. Typical vertebrae consists of centra, neural arches, one or

more processes (basapophyses, hypapohyses, parapophyses and
zygapophyses), and in many tails, hemal arches.
2. Transeverse processes (diapophyses)are present in most
vertebrates. Tetrapods of one species or another species have
basapophyses, hypapohyses, parapophyses and zygapophyses.
3. Vertebrae are constructed around, and sometimes within, the
notochord by mesenchyme cells from the sclerotomes (part of
somite dedicated to form bony skeleton)of mesodermal somites.
The notochord seath may be internally occupied with chordal
cartilage and surrounded by perichordal cartilage that usually
ossifies (bone transformation) to become replacement bone.
4. Notochord with its last remains often becomes present within
the vertebral column in all vertebrate classes. In mammals it
is vestigial part in the intervertebral discs as a pulpy
nucleus.
5. Fishes only have trunk and tail vertebrae. The trunk vertebrae
of tetrapods are subdivided into cervical, dorsal, and sacral
vertebrae. Dorsals are subdivided further into thoracic and
lumbar when long curved ribs are limited to the anterior
trunk.
6. In fishes the notochord persists within the adult vertebral
column from skull to the tip of the tail. It is usally
 constricted within centra, expanded between centra, producing
an hourglass-shaped amphicoelous vertebra.
7. A few fishes have aberrant columns, lacking unified centra
(dipnoans=lung fishes, some chondrosteans= a rare group of
bony fish, Latimeria=living coelacanths) or have calcified
cartilage rings instead of typical centra (holocephalans).
8. Amphicoelous centra are concave at both ends because the
persistent notochord is constricted within centra and expanded
between them. They are less specialized than other types and
are found in most fishes and in urodeles (salamanders),
apodans (coecilians) and some primitive lizards.
9. The centra of the remaining tetrapods are opisthocoelous
(salamanders), procoelous (anurans=frogs and toads, and modern
reptiles), heterocoelous (in the neck of birds) and acoelous
(mammals). These adaptations bring flexibility of the spine.
10. Amphibians have one cervical vertebra. The number is
higher in reptiles and still more in birds. Mammals typically
have seven. The first two vertebrae in amniotes are atlas and
axis. The proatlas is found in a few reptiles and mammals.
11. Sacral vertebrae bear stout transverse processes that
brace the pelvic girdles against the vertebral column.
Amphibians have one, reptiles and birds have two, and mammals
three to five sacral vertebrae.
12. Sacral vertebrae in amniotes usually unite to form a
sacrum. The sacrum of birds unites with adjacent lumbar and
caudal vertebrae to form a synsacrum.
13. Caudal vertebrae often bear hemal arches or chevron
bones. Neutral and hemal arches and chevron bones become
vestigial or disappear near the end of the tail. Caudal
vertebrae form a urostyle in anurans, pygostyle in birds, and
coccyx in apes and humans.

SKULL

The brain boxes of vertebrates are skull in general notion, though

the cranial skeleton actually consists of neurocranium and
dermatocranium with the visceral skeleton, which in turn
anatomically and ontologically framed by a) embryonic upper jaw
cartilage (platatoquadrate) and its replacement bones, b) embryonic
lower jaw cartilage (Meckel’s) and its replacement and investing
bones, and c) skeleton of the branchial arches.

To be continued....