Ninth Laurits Bjerrum Memorial Lecture: ''Small is beautifulM-the stiffness of soils

at small strains

Department of Civil Engineering, Imperial College, London S W7 2BU, United Kingdotn

Received February 20, 1989
Accepted July 7, 1989
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The purpose of this lecture is to show how field measurements of displacement around foundations and excavations
combined with numerical analysis and recent developments in laboratory techniques have together brought about
improvements in the understanding of the stiffness properties of a wide range of soils at the low levels of strain often
encountered in practice.
Key words: excavations, foundations, weak rock, stiff clay, field measurements, strain, yield, laboratory instrumentation,
in situ testing.

Le but de cette presentation est de montrer comment des mesures in situ de deplacement autour des fondations et
excavations combinees avec L'analyse numirique et les developpements recents dans les techniques de laboratoire ont
contribue a I'amelioration de la comprehension des proprietis de rigidite d'une large plage de sols aux faibles niveaux
de deformation souvent rencontres en pratique.
Mots clPs :excavations, fondations, roche molle, argile raide, mesures in situ, deformation, limite Clastique, instrumen-
tation en laboratoire, essais in situ.
[Traduit par la revue]
Can. Geotech. J . 26, 499-516 (1989)
For personal use only.

Introduction modelling the stress-strain behaviour of soil-admittedly of

This lecture is concerned with the stiffness of the ground
at small strains. During its preparation I became increasingly
aware of the extent to which the work described has been
shaped by three projects with which I was involved during
the first six, very intense years of my professional career.
The projects are summarized briefly in the following.
Excavation in London
My first job in 1961 was concerned with the design and
construction of the foundations and retaining walls for
Britannic House in the City of London. The 35-storey tower
block, the tallest in London at the time, is founded in a 20 m
deep excavation. The project has been described in detail
by Cole and Burland (1972). At the north end of the site,
the construction of the tower raft foundation entailed
excavating a temporary 1: 1 slope in the London Clay (Fig. 1).
The slope had to remain stable for a period of 2 months,
until the surrounding diaphragm walls could be propped
from the tower raft. Measurements of movement of the
diaphragm wall were made during and subsequent to excava-
tion. The top of the wall moved into the excavation by a
maximum of 55 mm, with the bottom moving somewhat less
(Fig. 2). At the time, the magnitudes of the movements gave
rise to some concern but the basement was successfully com-
pleted. Some years elapsed before these movements were
analysed in detail.
C a mbridge
In 1963, I went up to Cambridge to work under Professor
K. H. Roscoe. This was the time when the concepts of work-
hardening plasticity had just begun to be applied to soils.
It was an exhilarating period and the debates about the
subtleties of various energy equations, plastic potential, etc.
were intense and often heated.
We were seeing for the first time the prospect of develop-
ing complete, self-consistent constitutive relationships for
a highly idealized variety. In essence, the approach unified
the work of Rendulic (1937) for normally consolidated (con-
tractant) clays and of Hvorslev (1937) for overconsolidated
(dilatant) clays and coupled these to the concepts of work-
hardening plasticity.
The theoretical framework has been described in detail
elsewhere (e.g., Schofield and Wroth 1968; Roscoe and
Burland 1968; Atkinson and Bransby 1978) and I will only
point out a few key features (Fig. 3). Compression of a
normally consolidated clay takes place on a state boundary
surface in q, p' , e space defined by Rendulic's contours of
constant void ratio and most appropriately named the
Rendulic surface (although Atkinson and Bransby call it the
Roscoe surface). Any path lying on this surface (e.g., all-
round compression, KO compression, drained triaxial test)
gives rise to large irrecoverable (plastic) volume strains and
associated shear strains.
When overconsolidated owing to unloading, the soil is
assumed to be elastic. Thus, any state path for an over-
consolidated soil moves on a so-called elastic wall. Such a
wall intersects the Rendulic surface for lightly overconsoli-
dated states and the Hvorslev surface for heavily overconsol-
idated states along a "yield line." When sheared or
compressed, an overconsolidated soil can be expected to
exhibit high initial stiffness and small strains until the current
"yield line" is approached, when the stiffness will reduce
markedly. The sharp increase in the compressibility of clays
under one-dimensional conditions as the vertical effective
stress passes through the preconsolidation pressure is a
special case of this elastic-plastic model. This paper is
devoted largely to the stress-strain behaviour of soils for
states lying beneath the state boundary surface on the so-
called "elastic wall."
The chalk at Mundford
After leaving Cambridge, and attracted by the prospect

Printed in Canada / Imprime au Canada

 500 CAN. GEOTECH. J. VOL. 26, 1989
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For personal use only.

FIG. 1. Excavation for basement of Britannic House in London Clay (Cole and Burland 1972).

-
E
60-
I I I I I
+ 8 . 5 L d level
A
IY I
-
E
4

*
g LO- -
-8
:: -
6 20-

-2,
0
May June July August September October November April
1963 196L
FIG.2. Movement of north diaphragm retaining wall towards excavation-Britannic House (Cole and Burland 1972).

of making measurements of field behaviour, I joined the
Building Research Station, Watford, United Kingdom, in
1966. By good fortune I was immediately involved in the
site evaluation for a 300 GeV nuclear accelerator at
Mundford, Norfolk, on the chalk. The investigation has
been described in detail by Ward et al. (1968). It involved
a full-scale loading test by means of a 4.546 x lo6 dm3
(lo6 gal) steel water tank (Fig. 4), plate loading tests at
various depths in vertical shafts alongside the tank and
elsewhere, and the detailed visual description and classifica-
tion of the weathered rock from over seventy 0.75 m
diameter shafts covering the 50 km2 site.
Laurits Bjerrum was the geotechnical assessor for the
European Organisation for Nuclear Research (CERN) and
my first meeting with him was when he visited the site. I was
particularly impressed by his keen observations of the
weathering structures of the chalk. He also made a profound
impression on the drillers on two counts. First, unlike most
visitors to the site, he was prepared to descend a trial shaft
in a bosun's chair, and second, he showed a keen interest
in the drilling equipment and questioned the drillers closely
about it. It is perhaps appropriate that this paper should
begin with a description of my work on the founding prop-
erties of chalk.
Deformation properties of chalk
Chalk outcrops over a large area of southeast England.
It is also found in Eu'rope, large parts of Asia, and in some
places in Africa, the Americas, and Australia. It is a soft
white rock consisting almost entirely of calcium carbonate
 BURLAND
Rendulic surface ritical stote line
Isotropic consol. lin
Constant e contour
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Tension failure
/ '
FIG. 3. Part of the state boundary surfaces, elastic wall, and
"yield line" of the Cam-clay theory.
in the form of 65-85% skeletal remains of microorganisms
(known as coccoliths, 0.5-4 pm in size) and 15-35% coarse
carbonate debris. In its unweathered state the material is
weakly cemented owing to pressure solution at intergranular
boundaries. As a result of weathering and tectonic forces
For personal use only.
the chalk mass usually exhibits a jointed structure. Because
of its grain size the chalk is particularly prone to frost action
under periglacial conditions causing shattering and
remoulding.
As a result of the work at Mundford, Ward et al. (1968)
developed a visual classification or "grading" of the in situ
chalk. Grades I and 11-working from depth upwards-
refer to unweathered chalk with widely spaced and tightly
closed joints. Nearer the surface the spacing of the joints
reduces and they become open (grade 111). For grade IV the
FIG. 4. View of the test tank in the forest clearing at Mundford (Ward et al. 1968).
501
joints are closely spaced, open, and often infilled with
weathered debris. Grade V chalk consists of small fragments
of unweathered chalk set in a matrix of remoulded
weathered chalk and grade VI (suggested by Wakeling 1969),
is very soft structureless chalk containing a few small
unweathered fragments.
The Mundford test tank mentioned in the Introduction
was founded on the surface of grade V chalk, which steadily
improved in grade with increasing depth to grade I1 at a
depth of about 12 m. The tank was 18.3 m in diameter and
of the same height, so that when filled with water it exerted
a uniform pressure on the ground of 180 kPa. In a series
of five shafts under and nearby the tank, precise instruments
were arranged to measure the vertical displacements between
successive levels to an accurary of k0.0025 mm. Precise
water-level gauges were mounted at the top of each shaft
and at other locations on the ground surface to measure the
vertical displacements relative to a datum some distance
away from the tank to an accuracy of ~ 0 . 0 5mm. Ward
et al. (1968) give a detailed description of the
instrumentation.
Some typical results from a load, unload, reload test
are shown in Fig. 5, which shows the relationship between
surface pressure and vertical strain for selected levels beneath
and outside the tank. It can be seen that the strains were
extremely small, nowhere exceeding 0.01 %. Moreover, the
stress-strain behaviour was remarkably linear and recoverable
with a small amount of hysteresis-a surprising result for
a weak weathered rock.
Burland et al. (1973) analysed the measured displacements
at Mundford and found that the vertical displacements
beneath and outside the loaded area agreed very closely with
elastic theory for linearly increasing stiffness with depth.
Figure 6 shows the comparison between measured and
predicted displacements beneath the centre and just outside
the edge of the tank. By means of this analysis a range of
Young's modulus values was assigned to each chalk grade.
 502 CAN. GEOTECH. J. VOL. 26, 1989

Shoft 1 levels 3 - L
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-First loading
t t level 6
----- First unloading
Second loading

Vertical strain (O/O)

FIG. 5. Typical relationships between surface load intensity and vertical strain during loading, unloading, and reloading of the test
tank (Burland et al. 1973).
Settlement (mm) Settlement Imm) Young's modulus (MPo ~ 1 0 ~ )
For personal use only.

I I analysts
Plate looding \
tests
\
Beneath Centre Beneath Edge te. onalysis ]
(a) (bl
FIG. 6. Comparison between measured and predicted vertical displacements beneath the centre and the edge of the test tank (Burland
et al. 1973).

A number of 0.86 m diameter plate loading tests were
carried out in shafts at various depths alongside the tank
and at various other locations (Burland and Lord 1969).
Great care was taken to properly bed the plate at the bottom
of the shaft. Figure 7 shows a typical average pressure versus
settlement curve from a plate test in grade IV chalk. The
behaviour is characterized by an approximately bilinear
response with a fairly well defined "yield" pressure
separating high stiffness at low pressures from much lower
stiffness at high pressures. It is important to note that the
"yield" pressure is nowhere near failure and takes place at
settlements equal to about 0.1 To of the plate diameter. The
low-stress values of Young's modulus deduced from the
plate loading tests carried out alongside the tank are
compared in Fig. 6 b with the values derived from the tank
test results and the agreement is seen to be very satisfactory.
The results of the Mundford experiment showed that at
low stresses the chalk was very much stiffer than had
previously been assumed by engineers. A clear correlation
between degree of fracturing and stiffness had also been
established, which has since proved of very considerable
value in evaluating in situ properties of chalk.
Some years after the Mundford work an opportunity to
carry out some further work on the chalk was taken when
the Building Research Station was invited to instrument a
group of large silos founded on chalk. The silos are 50 m
high, 20 m in diameter, and are founded on circular rafts
bearing on grade IV chalk that is approximately uniform
 Load intensity (kPa) Avq. Fol~ n d a t ~ oPressure
n (kPo)
200 3W 402
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SOLSO

FIG.8. Relationship between average foundation pressure

and average settlement for two silos on chalk.
R e l a t i v e Settlement (mm)
0 10 20 30

10 t
FIG.7. Average pressure versus settlement of 865 mm diameter
10
For personal use only.

plate test on grade IV chalk (Burland and Lord 1969).

to a depth of about 25 m (Burland and Davidson 1976).
Precision borehole extensometers were installed beneath the
centre of each raft (Smith and Burland 1976).
Figure 8 shows the measured pressure-settlement relation-
ships for two of the silos. It can be seen that the behaviour
is remarkably similar to the plate loading test results shown
in Fig. 7, with a distinct yield pressure at about 250 kPa.
This yield pressure is approximately half the value obtained
from the plate loading tests, indicating an important scale
effect and resulting in larger settlements than predicted.
The data obtained from the borehole extensometers pro-
vide some valuable insights into the yielding of cemented
materials. Figure 9 shows the measured distribution of settle-
ment with depth for various average bearing pressures
beneath silo 3. It is apparent that yield first occurred at a
depth of about 15 m and thereafter progressed upwards.
The settlement distributions in Fig. 9 can be converted
into vertical strains and Fig. 10 shows the associated relation-
ships between local vertical strain and average bearing
pressure for successive points down the extensometer. The
onset of yield at each depth is marked by very sharp and
well-defined kinks in the various curves. It is clear that yield
occurred between points 2 and 4 (20 and 14 m depth respec-
tively) at much lower bearing pressures than for shallower
depth. Note also the very small vertical strains at which yield
occurred-generally less than about 0.03%. Almost identical
behaviour was observed for silo 4.
The values of initial Young's modulus were found to be
approximately constant with depth. Moreover, the rafts of
the two silos were observed to settle more or less uniformly
up to yield. Hence, elastic theory for the stresses beneath
a rigid circular punch has been used to estimate the stress
changes at which yield occurred at various depths. Figure 11
shows the yield points for various average depths beneath
silos 3 and 4 plotted on axes of change in maximum shear
20 Silo 3
. q ,vg=210 kPa
f . q = 250 kPa
h q =313 kPa
+ q og, =353 kPa
q,vg =383 kPa
FIG.9. Relationship between settlement and depth beneath
centre of silo 3 for various average foundation pressures.
stress (AT,,,,) and change in mean normal effective stress
(Ap'). It can be seen that the yield points for various depths
and for the two silos splot on a unique curve in stress incre-
ment space.
The grade IV chalk at the site of the silos may be considered
to be a residual soil arising out of in situ weathering of the
parent rock. The observed behaviour appears to be typical
of many residual soils, the properties of which were discussed
in detail by Vaughan (1985). Yield is the result of the break-
down of cementation bonds. The cementation bonding gives
rise to yielding effects separate from those induced by stress
history. Unlike stress history, cementation bonding may be
uniform over considerable depths, as appears to be the case
for the chalk underlying the silos.
The properties of artificially bonded soils are being studied
at Imperial College. They are manufactured by mixing a
kaolin slurry with sand, then pouring the mixture into a
mould, and air drying the soil so that the kaolin retreats
 504 CAN. GEOTECH. J. VOL. 26, 1989

LOO r
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V e r f ~ c o l stro~n (001 % per dlvlslon)

FIG. 10. Relationships between local vertical strain at various depths beneath centre of silo 3 and average foundation pressure.
The recognition that even deeply weathered chalk is far
-a 80 -
0
oSilo 3

Silo 4
stiffer than indicated by the A line in Fig. 13a has had a
profound influence on foundation design in the United
-.6 0 -
Y

Kingdom and has resulted in considerable economies. The

For personal use only.

-
N
- measurements on the silos indicate that some care is needed
b"
a
I LO - do'
'b
4 - //
20 - '/\
0 m ' ' ' ' " ' ' ' ' '
20 40 60 80 XX)
( A @ " + ~ A ~ R ) I(kPa)
~ Foundations and excavations in London Clay
i Frc. 11. The stress changes causing yield beneath the centre of
silos 3 and 4.
towards the grain contact points. The specimen is then fired
in a furnace; the degree of bonding depends on the tempera-
ture and the time. The composition of the sand may be varied
by mixing quartz sand with crushed fired kaolin. Figure 12
shows the yield locus obtained from samples prepared from
57% quartz sand, 30% fired kaolin, and 13% kaolin
(Maccarini 1987). The shape of the yield locus is broadly
similar to that obtained for the chalk beneath the silos.
The field studies carried out on the chalk have resulted
in a considerable upgrading of its suitability as a founding
material. The line labelled A in Fig. 13a shows the relationship
between standard penetration test (SPT) blow count and
Young's modulus proposed by Wakeling (1965). The values
of E are based largely on laboratory tests and small-diameter
plate tests in which the plate could not be properly bedded.
In Fig 136 the filled circles and open circles show the
preyield values of Young's modulus (E,) for the Mundford
tank test and the large-diameter plate tests. It can be seen
that the values of E, are 5-20 times larger than those given
by line A. The crosses give the equivalent value of tangent
Young's modulus after yield (E,) and even these lie above
line A. The pre- and post-yield values of E for the silos are
also shown and agree well with the results from Mundford.
in extrapolating the yield pressure q, obtained from plate
loading tests to much larger diameters, as there may be
important size effects. In view of the similarity between
weathered chalk and other residual soils, it is very probable
that the methods of visual classification and field testing
' ' described here can be successfully applied to other materials.
120 140
In the introduction it was stated that some years elapsed
before the measured movements of the diaphragm retaining
walls of Britannic House were analysed. The stimulus to
carry out a detailed back analysis of the measurements was
provided by the design of the deep excavation for the
Barbican Arts Centre in the centre of London, where the
nature and proximity of existing structures made it necessary
to limit ground movements (Stevens et a[. 1977).
The analysis was carried out using the finite element
method and represents one of the earliest applications of
the method in ground engineering. The successful application
of the method required an appropriate choice of stiffness
parameters for the London Clay. It was concluded that the
most direct method of evaluating these deformation proper-
ties was to carry out a back analysis of the measurements
made at the nearby Britannic House. The results of careful
laboratory tests on specimens taken from block samples of
London Clay (Bishop et al. 1965) coupled with their careful
analysis by Wroth (1972) strongly suggested that it would
be appropriate to treat the London Clay as a porous elastic
material. Cole and Burland (1972) describe the results of
the back analysis, which involved a trial and error procedure
in which the values of E, (undrained Young's modulus)
were adjusted iteratively until the observed and predicted
horizontal wall displacements were in agreement. Average
values of KO obtained by Skempton (1961) and Bishop
et al. (1965) were used to derive the initial horizontal effective
 BURLAND
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(k Pa)
100

I1 &/ 1 I I I J I 1 i

100 200 300 LOO 500

FIG. 12. Results of triaxial tests on artificially bonded soil showing a yield locus (Maccarini 1987).
FoundoI8on
Q p i a l e Test-Dborneler shown 1 1 (St. John 1975). In all cases Eu increases with p' . The cases
looor( ) x Undrolned Triaxtol Test
involving vertical loading give lower values of Eu than do
excavations where large changes in horizontal stress occur,
pointing to anisotropic stiffness properties with Eh greater
For personal use only.

than E,. The range of Eu values obtained from the

0 10 20 30
SPT
9 Tank Test
I I t I I I
0 10 20 30
SPT
FIG. 13. Relationships between SPT blow count and Young's
modulus E for chalk: (a) from Wakeling (1965); ( 6 ) comparison
of Mundford data with Wakeling's line A.
stresses. An important and unexpected finding from this work
was that the deduced values of E, were at least five times
greater than those derived from careful laboratory tests.
The back-analysed values of Eu from Britannic House
were used successfully in the design of the Barbican Arts
Centre and subsequently for other foundations and excava-
tions in the London area. Two notable recent examples are
the underground car park at New Palace Yard, Westminster
(Burland and Hancock 1977), and the Queen Elizabeth I1
Conference Centre (Burland and Kalra 1986). Figure 14
shows the distribution of undrained Young's modulus Eu
with mean effective stress p' derived from seven field studies
laboratory tests on block samples from Ashford Common
(Bishop et al. 1965) are also shown in Fig. 14. The large
discrepancies between the field and laboratory values are
L0
evident.
As a result of the above work, I had, during the late
1970's, become convinced that the low stiffness values deter-
mined from laboratory tests were due to sampling effects
(Burland 1979) and had therefore become a strong advocate
of in situ testing as the only reliable way of determining
in situ stiffness properties. Then, two important
developments, which took place almost simultaneously,
caused me to modify this view.
Certain anomalies had appeared when predicted ground
displacements based on the use of linear elasticity were
compared with field measurements. For example, the shape
of the predicted surface settlement profile around the New
I I Palace Yard car park differed significantly from the
LO
measured profile, as shown in Fig. 15. Simpson et al. (1979)
showed that by using a bilinear stress-strain law with a high
initial stiffness the agreement could be greatly improved,
as shown by the broken lines in Fig. 15.
Simultaneously with Simpson's theoretical work,
laboratory experimental studies began at Imperial College
in which strains were measured locally on the samples. These
gave much larger stiffnesses at smaller strains than were
obtained from the average strains across end plattens (Costa-
Filho and Vaughan 1980). Figure 16 shows the results of
some unconsolidated undrained tests on 38 mm diameter
specimens of London Clay in which locally measured strains
are compared with average overall strains.
The two approaches pointed strongly towards markedly
nonlinear stress-strain behaviour with high stiffness at axial
strains less than about 0.1 Yo. Such low values of strain are
beyond the accuracy of most routine commercial testing
apparatus. The obvious question that has to be raised at this
 506 C A N . GEOTECH. J. VOL. 26, 1989
Eu (MPo)
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For personal use only.
FIG. 14. Variation of undrained Young's modulus E,, with
mean normal effective stress derived from various sites on London
Clay (St. John 1975).
stage is, what levels of strain are developed in the ground
under working conditions?
Ground strains induced under working conditions
The determination of strain in the field requires the
measurement of differential displacement, for example,
along a borehole extensometer. There are relatively few
published records of measured differential displacements
within the ground associated with buildings and excavations.
The following cases have been taken from the literature.
Attewell and Farmer (1974) present some observations of
ground movements resulting from the excavation of a 4.2 m
diameter shield driven tunnel at a depth of 30.8 m in London
Clay beneath Green Park. The tunnel was lined with cast-
iron segments (seven per ring) and was subsequently grouted.
Figure 17 shows the measured maximum settlements at
various depths over the centre line of the tunnel and these
have been converted into average direct strains. It can be
seen that it is only within a tunnel diameter above the crown
that the vertical strains exceed 0.1 Yo. Most of the ground
is strained to less than 0.05%.
Turning now to foundations, Kriegel and Weisner (1973)
presented measurements of settlement at various depths
beneath some buildings in East Germany. Figure 18 shows
graphs of settlement versus average bearing pressure for a
tall hotel in Berlin founded in 40-50 m of medium dense
sand. The settlement measurements have been converted to
average direct strains. Even though high bearing pressures
were applied, only locally do the strains exceed 0.1070,
reaching a maximum of about 0.3%.
Figure 19 shows the results of settlement measurements
on a tall residential building founded on medium dense sand.
-E
- Class A ( Burland & Hancock )
--
' 0 120 2$
S ~ m p s o net al.
FIG. 15. Observed and predicted distributions of ground
surface displacement with distance from the edge of the excavation
at New Palace Yard (Simpson et al. 1979).
LOOr
FIG. 16. Unconsolidated undrained triaxial compression tests
on London Clay using local strain transducers (Costa-Filho and
Vaughan 1980).
Again, it is apparent that only locally does the vertical strain
exceed 0.1 %. Figure 20 shows the settlement observations
for a tall residential building in northern Germany founded
on boulder clay. It is evident that, apart from the top 2.9 m,
the strains in the ground are less than 0.1 %. The somewhat
larger strains in the top 2.9 m may be due to disturbance
and softening in the base of the excavation.
Finally, Fig. 21 shows the measurements of settlement at
various depths beneath a 3.1 m x 3.1 m test footing on the
crust overlying soft Champlain Clay in eastern Canada
(Bauer et al. 1976). The footing was constructed in an
excavation 0.66 m deep. Design working pressures in the
range of 125-200 kPa were used. The settlements have been
converted to average vertical strains and it can be seen that
below a depth of 0.78 m the strains are generally less than
0.2% at a pressure of 200 kPa. The much larger strains in
the top 0.78 m are once again believed to be due to distur-
bance and softening caused by the excavation for the
footing.
It is evident from these few examples that under working
conditions we can expect the large mass of the ground
 BURLAND
Vertsal s t r a ~ n(%) Settlement (mm)
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FIG. 17. Measured distribution of vertical displacement and
strain above a tunnel in London Clay (Attewell and Farmer 1974).
beneath and around a structure, be it an excavation or foun-
For personal use only.
dation, to experience direct strains of less than 0.1 %. It is
only locally that strains are likely to exceed this value. It
follows that if successful predictions of ground movement
are to be made, it is necessary to ensure that reliable
measurements of strain can be made to an accuracy of
0.01% or better. It was with this objective in mind that a
programme was initiated at Imperial College to develop and
refine methods of precise measurement of local strains in
the laboratory.
Comparison of laboratory and field investigation of
small-strain behaviour
Previous work on the measurement of local strains on
samples in the triaxial apparatus had involved the use of
linear variable differential transducers (LVDT's). These
instruments, though very accurate, are cumbersome and
difficult to use, since they require accurate alignment and
are prone to jamming and damage when the sample
approaches failure. Hence a programme was initiated to
develop simple and precise methods of measuring local axial
strains in the laboratory.
Laboratory instrumentation
Burland and Symes (1982)describe such a method, which
makes use of electrolytic liquid levels to measure change in
inclination. Figure 22 shows the principles of the device, in
which a change of height Ah is converted to a change in slope
A6. Pads C and D are glued to the membrane surrounding
the sample. There are hinges at C, D, and E. The hinges
at C and D are located close to the mounting points on the
specimen. Jardine et al. (1984)report that these gauges can
resolve displacements to an accuracy of about 1 pm over
a range of 15 mm.
These inclinometer strain gauges are easy and quick to
mount and, because the mechanism is fully articulated, they
are not damaged when the sample is taken to failure. A pair
Avg. Bearing Pressure (kPo1
0 200 LOO 600 800 1000
.-.
E
-
E
20 -
Avg. Bearing Pressure ( k P o 1
0 200 LOO 600 800 1000
" I
0 1
FIG. 18. Settlements and strains beneath a tall hotel building
on medium dense sand (Kriegel and Weisner 1973).
of gauges is used, mounted diametrically opposite each
other, so that any tilting of the sample can be measured and
compensated for.
Continuing developments are taking place in the measure-
ment of local strains on samples. For example, Ackerly et al.
(1987)describe a device in which the electrolevel is replaced
by a strain-gauged pendulum inclinometer. Clayton and
Khatrush (1986) describe a simple, compact device that
makes use of the Hall effect. Figure 23 shows a photograph
of the latest inclinometer gauge in use at Imperial College.
Laboratory measurements of small-strain stiffness
Figure 24 shows the results of a typical unconsolidated
undrained test on an undisturbed sample of London Clay
from Canon's Park in north London. The measured effective
stress path is plotted in Fig. 24a, with locally measured
values of axial strain indicated. Note that a mobilized shear
strength of about 0.25Cu is required to achieve an axial
strain of 0.1%.
Figure 24b shows a comparison between the externally
measured and locally measured stress-strain curves. It can
be seen that the external measurements, which have been
corrected for apparatus compliance, lead to apparently
linear initial stress-strain behaviour. However, the local
measurements show much stiffer nonlinear behaviour.
Figure 24c shows the results of the internal measurements
of stiffness plotted in terms of Eu/C,, versus log E , where
Eu is the secant undrained Young's modulus. The strongly
nonlinear nature of the sample response is evident, with
Eu/Cu decreasing from about 1700 at 0.003% strain t o
about 150 at 1.0% strain. The broken lines in Fig. 24c shows
the range of Eu/Cu results obtained from Canon's Park
over a depth of 10 m. A similar range was obtained from
 508 CAN. GEOTEC:H. J. VOL. 26, 1989
Avg. Bearing Pressure (kPo) Avg. Bearing Pressure (k Pa)
LOO
I
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Avg. Bearing Pressure (kPa)

Avg. Bearing Pressure (kPa)

FIG. 19. Settlements and strains beneath a tall residential

building on medium dense sand (Kriegel and Weiser 1973).

another site many miles to the north at Bell Common, FIG. 20. Settlements and strains beneath a tall residential
For personal use only.

Epping Forest. building on boulder clay (Kriegel and Weisner 1973).

The following conclusions can be drawn from the results Avg. Bearing Pressure (kPo)
given in Fig. 24:
(I] At axial strains less than about 0.1 % (i.e., the upper limit
of strain experienced by the large mass of the ground under
working stresses) local measurements give much higher stiff-
nesses than those determined from traditional external
measurements.
(iz] The stress-strain relationships are continuously nonlinear
from very small strains and there is no clear indication of
a well-defined threshold strain of the type postulated by
Simpson et al. (1979).
(iig The use of local strain transducers leads to a very signif-
icant improvement in the consistency and repeatability of
stress-strain measurements, as can be seen from the small
range of results for Eu/Cuversus log 6 , shown in Fig. 24c.
(Note that the nondimensional ratio Eu/Cu was employed
here, but Jardine et al. (1984) have argued that the ratio Avg. Bearing Pressure (kPa)
Eu/pd has many fundamental and practical advantages.)
(iv) For ease of presentation and comparison the secant
stiffness-strain characteristics can be represented by the two
parameters Eu(o,ol,, the undrained modulus at 0.01 % strain,
and L, the index of linearity defined as Eu(o.l)/Eu(,~ol).
The techniques of measuring the stress-strain properties
of soils in the laboratory having been improved, the key
question is, how relevant are these measurements to field
conditions?
Field measurements of small-strain stiffness
The direct measurement of in situ stress-strain behaviour
requires the measurements of strain of the type described
previously. Three such investigations have been carried out
in London Clay and have been analysed by Jardine et al.
(1985).
Marsland and Eason (1973) present the results of a plate
loading test in which displacements were measured at various FIG. 21. Settlements and strains beneath a test footing on
depths during loading at a constant rate of penetration of Champlain Clay (Bauer et al. 1976).
 BURLAND
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l eve1
Frc. 22. Principles of the inclinometer vertical strain gauge
(Burland and Symes 1982).
2.5 mm/min. The plate was 865 mm in diameter and the
test was carried out at a site in central London at the base
of a 900 mm diameter, 17.5 m deep shaft. Figure 250 shows
the observed relationships between average pressure and
settlement for points at various depths beneath the plate.
Figure 25b shows the associated average strains deduced
from the differences in settlement at each load. Note the
much larger strains immediately beneath the plate. The
secant Young's modulus El, corresponding to each value of
For personal use only.
average strain can be evaluated using elastic theory to
calculate the appropriate stress changes beneath the plate.
The undrained strength at the depth of the plate test was
200 kPa. Figure 26 shows a plot of Eu/Cu versus log E , for
the four levels beneath the plate. Also shown is the range
of values from laboratory tests taken from Fig. 24c. The
values of Eu/Cu from the three deepest levels are in excellent
agreement with the laboratory values. The values of Eu/Cu
from the top level are very low and reflect bedding errors
between the plate and clay surface and also disturbance
effects caused by the drilling operation.
Recently, my advice was sought on the design of a slab
foundation on the surface of London Clay at a site in
Bracknell where very stringent limits had been set on
permissible differential settlements. In view of the importance
and sensitivity of the project, it was decided to carry out
a field loading test on a 3 m x 3 m area with settlement
observations at various depths beneath the centre of the
loaded area. One hundred tonnes of kentledge in the form
of concrete blocks was stacked on a thin, lightly reinforced
3 m x 3 m concrete pad cast on the ground surface and
settlements were measured at depths of 0 , 1, 2, 3, and 5 m
beneath the centre. Figure 27 shows the observed settlements
2.8 h and 28 days after commencement of loading together
with the associated average vertical strains. As in the
previous case, the values of Eu corresponding to the
average strains after 2.8 h were calculated using elastic
theory. Figure 28 shows the resulting values of Eu/Cu
compared with the laboratory values taken from Fig. 24c.
Once again, the agreement is excellent.
The two field tests just described involve the loading of
footings. Cooke et al. (1979)present data for a completely
different type of test in London Clay. They tested a 4.5 m
long, 168 mm diameter tubular steel pile that had been jacked
in place. The pile was instrumented with load cells at various
depths so that the shear stress transfer distribution at each
applied load was accurately. known. Also, accurate measure-
FIG. 23. Inclinometer gauge.
ments of vertical shear strain in the clay against the shaft
surface were made at various depths by means of precise
horizontal inclinometers. Figures 29a and 296 have been
taken from their paper. These data can be used to derive
the relationships between rVhand y,, at various depths
from which secant values of the shear modulus GVhcan be
calculated. Figure 300 shows the relationship between Gvh
and log yVh for three depths remote from the tip of the
pile.'
For undrained plane strain conditions and zero horizontal
strain, the major principal strain E , is equal to yvh/2. If the
assumption of isotropy is made, then Eu = 3GVh.In figure
30b, values of 3Gvh/Cuare plotted against log E , , thereby
allowing comparison with the range of laboratory results
of Eu/Cu taken from Fig. 24c. It can be seen that the field
values of 3GVh/Cu lie above the laboratory measure-
ments-the values differing by a factor of about two. The
most likely explanation for this difference is that the process
of installation and subsequent consolidation has resulted in
an increase in the mean effective stresses in the clay adjacent
to the pile shaft, with a consequent increase in Gvh. In
addition, London Clay is known to be anisotropic with
Eh > Ev and it seems highly probable that GVhwill be
greater than Eu,/3 (where E,, is the undrained Young's
modulus in the vertical direction). In view of these effects,
the comparison between field and laboratory measurements
given in Fig. 30b is considered to be very reasonable.
On the basis of these direct comparisons between
laboratory and field measurements of stiffness, I have been
'strictly, the subscripts vr should be used, since the problem is
axisymmetric and G,, is not necessarily equal to G,,.
 5 10 CAN. GEOTECH. J. VOL. 26, 1989
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Ax101 strains
indicated In %

Strains determined from external

d~splocernents corrected for load
For personal use only.

cell compliance

Axial strain (%I

Axial s t r a ~ n (%)

F I G . 24. Typical London Clay unconsolidated undrained test data from Canon's Park at 7.3 r n depth: (a) undrained stress path;
(b) initial stress-strain behaviour, and (c) stiffness-strain characteristics (Jardine et al. 1985).
 Avg. Pressure (k P a )
I I

-E 10
0
, 1500 -
-E 610mm

-
C
L57mm
-
W

C
a 20 305mm g -
-5
I000
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-
+.
a,
"l
m 8 6 5 m m Oto Plate 152mm
* 3 0
'
500

I I I l l I I ,
0 0: 0 i 10
Avg. Pressure ( k P a )
V e r t ~ c o l S t r a ~ n (%I

FIG. 26. Deduced stiffness-strain characteristics from results of

plate loading test in London Clay given in Fig. 25 (Jardine et a/.
1985).
Vertical s t r a t n (70) Settlement (rnrn)
For personal use only.

FIG.25. Settlements (a) and strains (b) beneath a plate test at

the bottom of a shaft in London Clay (Marsland and Eason 1973).

compelled to modify the views I held in the late 1970's about

the inappropriateness of laboratory tests for the measurement
of stiffness-at least for stiff materials. If the .strains are
measured locally to a high accuracy, tests on high-quality
samples at the appropriate confining pressures give
remarkably accurate and consistent measurements of the
in situ small-strain stiffness.
Fundamental studies
The inclinometer strain gauges described previously have
been used during the last few years in the Imperial College
Soil Mechanics Laboratory to carry out fundamental studies
of the behaviour of resedimented clays. Much of this work
was carried out by Jardine (1985) and has been summarized
by Hight et al. (1985). An outcome of the work has been
clarification of our understanding of the factors that
influence small-strain stiffness and, in particular, the
influence of stress history.
For each clay, blocks of reconstituted soil were formed
by one-dimensional consolidation from a slurry using a
225 mm diameter oedometer; the clay was allowed to swell
to an overconsolidation ratio (OCR) between 2 and 4.
Specimens cut from these blocks were then reconsolidated
one dimensionally in the hydraulic triaxial cell (Bishop and
Wesley 1975) to a vertical effective stress at least 1.75 times
the maximum value applied in the oedometer to remove the
effects of sampling (Gens 1982). Specimens were then
sheared undrained in triaxial compression and extension
from a normally consolidated state and from various over-
consolidated states produced by swelling under one-
1
D e p t h (rn)
FIG. 27. Distributions of settlement and strain beneath the
centre of a 3 m x 3 m test footing on the surface of London Clay
at Bracknell.
dimensional conditions. From these data it has been possible
to identify the regions in stress space surrounding a given
initial stress state for which the strains are small and the stiff-
ness large. These are termed "small-strain regions" or
"high-stiffness regions."
Jardine (1985) has shown from cyclic tests on a low-
plasticity resedimented clay that there are three regions of
stress change to be considered:
Region I-axial strains I0.01 %, which give rise to straight
undrained stress paths and no plastic strains.
Region 11-axial strains from about 0.01% to about 0.1'7'0,
which give rise to approximately straight undrained stress
paths, but the strains are plastic and exhibit creep.
Region 111-axial strains > 0.1-0.2%, which lead to the
onset of volumetric yield with sharp kinks in undrained stress
paths.
Figure 31 shows the "small-strain regions" for a
resedimented low-plasticity clay for the following three stress
histories:
(i)The soil was normally consolidated to point A under KO
(one-dimensional) conditions.
 512 CAN. GEOTECH. J . VOL. 26, 1989
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Vert~calstrain (%)
FIG. 28. Deduced stiffness-strain characteristics from results of
footing test given in Fig. 27 (Jardine et a/. 1985).
(ii) From point A the shear stress was removed under
undrained conditions such that effective stresses followed
the path AB with point B being the equilibrium condition.
This particular stress history reproduces the "ideal" sampl-
ing process.
(iii) From point A the soil was swelled back one dimensionally
to point C, giving an overconsolidation ratio of about 4.
For each of the stress histories represented by points A,
For personal use only.
B, and C, undrained triaxial compression and extension tests
were carried out as well as a limited number of other tests
following various stress paths.
Around each of the three states A, B, and C are marked
points in stress space corresponding to axial strains of 0.01
and 0.1 Yo. Two contours have been sketched in around each
initial stress point to represent regions I (axial
strain 5 (0.01 Yo) and regions I1 (axial strains s 0.1 Yo).
It can be seen from Fig. 31 that as an element of soil
experiences large changes of effective stress, the current
stress state carries around with it a region of small strain
or high stiffness. It can be seen that the shapes and sizes
of these regions change with stress history, as does, most
importantly, their location around the current stress. There
is evidence to suggest that the sizes of the "low-strain
Shear stress (kPo)
0 10 15 20 25 30
FIG. 29. Measured distributions down a pile o f (a) shear stress at pile surface and (b) shear strains in the clay against the pile surface
(Cooke et al. 1979).
regions" are time dependent and that a rest period (ageing)
causes them to expand, probably because of the development
of interparticle bonds.
The concept of kinematic "small-strain regions" provides
a powerful insight into the influence of stress history of the
stiffness of soils at small strains and in particular the influence
of sampling. For example, by comparing the regions around
points A and B in Fig. 31 it can be seen that a given reduction
in, say, (a: + ui)/2 (keeping (a, - ar)/2 constant) will give
rise to a much stiffer response from the soil at stress state A
than at stress state B. This is because for stress state A the
stress path has to traverse a much longer length before reach-
ing the 0.01 or 0.1% contour than for stress state B. On
the other hand, a given increase in (a, - q ) / 2 (keeping
(0; + ur7/2 constant) will give rise to a much stiffer
response from the soil at stress state B than at stress state A .
Thus we see that even a perfectly sampled specimen (stress
state B) will have a significantly different low-strain response
from the in situ material (stress state A).
The precise definition of the small-strain region requires
more study. Jardine (1985) uses the magnitude of the major
principal strains to define a region, whereas Simpson et al.
(1979) use an arbitrary definition of generalized strain. I am
of the opinion that defining the region in terms of incre-
mental strain energy has many advantages.
Concluding remarks
This lecture has described a variety of studies of the
behaviour of various types of ground at levels of strain that
are small but nevertheless represent the majority of practical
working conditions.
It is important to note the interplay that has taken ;lace
between analysis and experiment-both developing in
parallel. Much of the interpretation of the field measure-
ments could not have been carried out without the aid of
numerical analysis. It is also important to recognize the inter-
active roles played by field measurements, in situ testing,
and laboratory studies.
The finding that at small strains the ground exhibits high
stiffness and, frequently, nonlinear properties has far-
reaching practical and fundamental consequences. For
Shear strain x
35 800 1200 1600
 BURLAND
50
(a)
a
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Shear strain Y V H (%)
Major principal strain
FIG.30. Deduced stiffness-strain characteristics from results of pile test given in Fig. 29 (Jardine et al. 1985).
For personal use only.
FIG. 31. Regions of small strain and high stiffness at three states of stress history for a resedimented clay with low plasticity index.
A, normally consolidated under KO conditions; B, unloaded from A undrained (ideal sampling); C, KO swell from A to an OCR =
4 (Jardine 1985).
example, Jardine et al. (1986)have shown that nonlinearity
of stress-strain response has very significant effects on soil-
structure interaction, stress distributions in the soil mass,
and displacement profiles around loaded areas and excava-
tions. Unless small-strain nonlinearity is recognized, the
interpretation of field measurements and in situ tests may
be confusing and misleading.
To illustrate the above statement, Jardine et a/. (1986)
have carried out numerical analyses of a wide range of prob-
lems (a footing, a pile, a propped cantilever excavation, and
an expanding cylindrical cavity) using a nonlinear soil model
having a fixed undrained stress-strain curve. The soil model
represents a low-plasticity clay that is lightly overcon-
solidated. Though stiffer than many soils, it is not particularly
nonlinear.
For each problem the complete load-displacement relation-
ship was derived up to failure. Thus, for each problem, the
O lrn depth
+ 0 2m d e p t h
(%I
displacement corresponding to any specified load factor was
known. The apparent secant Young's modulus was then
evaluated from elastic theory, as is the traditional approach
to interpreting field measurements and in situ tests. Finally,
for each problem, the apparent Young's modulus (E;) was
plotted against load factor. Figure 32 shows pIots of E,~'/c,
versus load factor for five boundary-value problems that
can be compared with the relationship given by an undrained
triaxial compression test.
It can be seen that, for a given value of load factor, the
value of apparent Young's modulus is highly problem depen-
dent. Consider, for example, a load factor of 0.3. The values
of E$ for the footing and the strutted excavation are close
to the value obtained from a triaxial compression test. In
contrast, the expanding cylindrical cavity gives a very much
lower value of E:, whereas the rigid pile and pile element
give rnuch higher values of E;.
 514 CAN. GEOTECH. J. VOL. 26, 1989

5000 r I Younqls modulus (M Pa x lo3)

o O _ lI 2I 3I LI 5I 6I 7I

e Plate loading tests

---analysis
Finite element back

-0-- Seismic refraction

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FIG.33. The chalk at Mundford-a comparison between E

values derived from static tank and plate tests (Fig. 66) and E values
from in sitir shear wave refraction measurements (Abbiss 1979).
Load factor LLI,, . PPI,
For personal use only.

FIG. 32. Relationship between apparent undrained stiffness

and load factor for various boundary value problems (Jardine et a/.
1986). \ o E ,,(0.01)from triaxial tests

Footings, piles, and expanding cavities form the basis of

the majority of in situ loading tests. It is clear from Fig. 32
that great care is needed when deducing apparent elastic
modulus values from such tests and applying them in design.
Interpretation is greatly assisted if a full load-displacement
curve has been obtained or, preferably, local strains within
the ground are measured, as for the case records described
in the previous section.
The development of laboratory techniques for the precise
measurement of small strains has assisted in closing the gap
between the dynamic and static measurement of ground
stiffness. In the past, dynamic measurements of Young's
modulus, or shear modulus, have tended to give results that
are so much higher than static values determined in the
laboratory that the dynamic values have been discounted.
However, in a number of recent cases, the accurately deter-
mined static small-strain values of stiffness have been found
to be very close to the values measured by dynamic methods.
For example, Fig. 33 shows a comparison between the
values of E deduced from the static tank loading test on the
chalk at Mundford described earlier and the values derived
from in situ shear wave refraction measurements (Abbiss
1981). Similarly, Fig. 34 shows a comparison between values
of Eu(o,ol)from undrained triaxial tests on samples of FIG.34. Comparison of laboratory values of E,,@,,,,and field
London Clay from Canon's Park and dynamic values of dynamic values obtained by Abbiss (1981), for London Clay.
Eu (= 3 x G) obtained by Abbiss (1981). The dynamic
values of E, are only about 30% greater than the values of erties, improved understanding of damping and rate effects,
Eu(0.01). and important developments in studies of wave propagation
These results open up the way for a whole new area of and dynamic soil-structure interaction.
study linking dynamic and static deformation properties. In the past, laboratory techniques of measuring strain
Such studies would lead to a wider application of geophysical have been remarkably crude. The studies described here have
measurements for the determination of in situ stiffness prop- shown that improvements in the measurement of local strain
 BURLAND
have resulted i n valuable practical a n d f u n d a m e n t a l infor-
mation o n t h e stiffness a n d yielding properties o f t h e soils
investigated. T h e r e is e n o r m o u s scope f o r t h e development
o f improved instruments and techniques and f o r the exper-
imental study o f stiffness properties o f soils a n d weak rocks
a t small strains.
I h o p e t h a t i n t h e course o f this lecture I have been suc-
cessful i n conveying m y belief that, insofar as strains a r e
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concerned (and in contrast t o t h e length o f t h e lecture),
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ACKERLEY, S.K., HELLINGS,J.E., and JARDINE,R.J. 1987.
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