WORDS

1. Enzymes (Enzimas): are protein molecules in cells which work as biological

catalysts. Enzymes speed up chemical reactions in the body, but do not get
used up in the process, therefore can be used over and over again. Almost all
biochemical reactions in living things need enzymes.
2. Hypothesized (hipotetizado): o give a possible but not yet proven explanation
for something: There's no point hypothesizing about how the accident
happened, since we'll never really know.
3. Mugshot (ficha policial ó foto): a photograph taken by the police of a person
who has been charged with a crime: A poster with mugshots of wanted men
was on the wall.
4. Refashioning (Remodelar): fashion (something) again or differently..
5. In Vitro (in vitro): In vitro (meaning: in the glass) studies are performed with
microorganisms, cells, or biological
6. Developed (desarrollada): to grow or change into a more advanced, larger, or
stronger form, or to make something do this.
7. Springtails (calémbolos): form the largest of the three lineages of modern
hexapods
8. Isotopes (Isótopos): a chemical element is an atom that has a different number
of neutrons (that is, a greater or lesser atomic mass) than the standard for that
element. The atomic number is the number of protons in an atom's nucleus.
9. Complex (Complejo): composed of many interconnected parts; compound;
composite: a complex highway system. characterized by a very complicated or
involved arrangement of parts, units, etc.: complex machinery. so complicated
or intricate as to be hard to understand or deal with: a complex problem.
10. Threads (Hilo): a fine cord of flax, cotton, or other fibrous material spun out to
considerable length, especially when composed of two or more filaments
twisted together.

FACTS
CRISPR is the sort of thing that gets drunk biologists at parties overly excited
CRISPR is a breakthrough approach to gene therapy that can turn Chihuahua into a
Great Dane (and much much more).
CRISPR was first referenced in 1987 by Japaense scientists.
They noticed something strange was noticed in e.coli, which is bacteria, containing
DNA.
Scientists found a strange stretch of DNA.
5 identical sequences in a row, separated by very short sequences in between that
were all different.
It was unusual, but they didn’t know what to think of it at the time
Scientists began seeing the repeats often in bacteria, and a name was given to the
phenomenon: Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats: CRISPR
Nature preserved this pattern, sometimes in creatures hundreds of millions of years
old
In 2005, databases of sequences were available and searches were done to match
these repeated patterns with other species’
Breakthrough: The bits between the repeats matched virus DNA
Bacteria had virus DNA inside them, but why?
The origin is unknown. It was first thought that there was virus DNA in particular places
of the bacterial genome, like a human finding a segment of mosquito DNA
Scientist Eugene Koonin declared it to be a defense system.
A virus makes life bad for bacteria.
The oceans are full of viruses, and they kill up to 40% of bacteria everyday.
It was hypothesized that bacteria were storing pieces of DNA from viruses to
recognize them later, like a “most wanted poster” or mug shot.
It was thought that the bits of virus was for the bacteria to defend itself by figuring out
the virus’
A virus comes into a cell, explodes and releases “naked”
Usually, multiple “weapons of defense” – enzymes – attack viruses, like ground troops,
they fight hard.
Usually, they fail and the virus takes over the cell and the bacteria dies.
There is some non-zero probability that the cell can survive, though. If so, new
enzymes are sent to clean up the stray virus and cut it up into little bits of virus that are
then shoved into the bacteria’s own DNA between the patterned repeats.
The spaces in the cell’s own DNA act as a storage facility and a memory device, so
that next time the virus is there and its DNA spreads, the cell can send out its “big
guns” and destroy the virus.
The cell manufactures special “molecular assassins” that recognize the virus DNA. A
protein “attacker” looks like a clamshell (misshapen Pacman) and has a copy of the
virus “mugshot”
When it bumps into the virus RNA, it pulls it apart, reads it and if it is not a match to the
“mugshot”, it moves on, if it is a match, it locks in, the DNA is trapped and molecular
blades chop it up
The Promise of CRISPR: Cheap, Precise, and Possibly Universal

What is most exciting, is if we could find a way to use this ability to precisely edit DNA!
CRISPR could be used to target genes we know cause awful diseases such as
Huntington’s Chorea or hemophilia.
It has already been demonstrated in a mice
Their cells were given a “mugshot” for a bad gene, and it found the gene and chopped
it out.
A good gene was then put in its place pretty easily
The new, good gene was placed near where the old gene was. It didn’t need to be
precisely placed because repair enzymes continually check for breaks and they saw
the break in the DNA and saw the good gene and then put it together
This is a natural repair pathway
From assassination to engineering, from killing to refashioning.
Genetic engineering and genome editing technologies have been around for 30 years,
but none as potentially powerful as CRISPR
Biologist Beth Shupiero from UC Santa Cruize says that two years ago, a gene editor
was put into a cell, given instructions to go somewhere, but it might have gone
somewhere near where it was supposed to but not actually where it was supposed to.
The old technology took a lot of time and money, about $5,000.
Now, it is super easy to do
The enzyme finds the specific and precise place, and the laboratory method is cheap,
about $75.
CRISPR can be used in any living thing, from corn to cockroaches.
CRISPR hasn’t been found to not work with anything.
This is big news for scientists. There are now usable “molecular scissors” programmed
to cut DNA wherever they want.
CRISPR has the potential to:
Treat/prevent disease
Resurrect/reconstruct long lost creatures (hello Jurassic Park!!)
Concerns with “Playing God” and Designer babies:

Where does the sacred begin and end?

Is it tinkering with someone’s body, altering their own cells? – We already do this…
We’ve had test tube babies (In Vitro Fertilization) for decades already
60,000 kids a year…some parents could have chosen boy or girl
Should we outlaw this? Won’t people just go to other countries that haven’t? –
Probably China
Should we draw the line at sperm cells egg cells or embryos…
How about permanent changes to your DNA that will then be passed on your your
children without their consent?
Researchers in China have already begun experimenting on non-viable human
embryos…
They had limited success, but this is just the beginning
CRISPR is still considered “dangerous” and not usable on human embryos
4 other Chinese labs doing this work too
Could this be a historical moment? What are the risks?

Normally trees from different species are competitors.

Suzanne noticed that by cutting a birch tree, the fir tree next to it dies.
She leads an experiment to test it out.
She sealed trees into plastics bags and injected radioactive gas.
The trees sucked up the gas.
Where does isotopes go after?
They are shared between trees.
1 tree was connected to 47 other trees.
The bigger and older the tree is, the more connected it is.
Trees have a complex communication network.
Wood Wide Web

The communication is not only made by the main roots.

The feeder roots that communicate too.
There are little white threads attached to the roots, smaller than an eyelash.
They’re everywhere and some even go on for 7 miles.
Not really plants, but a fungus.
They’re hollow, like tubes.
A fungi freeway.
Why are fungi creating this network and why do trees need it?

The tree has something the fungus needs and the fungus has something the tree
needs.
A tree turns inorganic carbon into organic carbon.
CO2 into sugar.
If they only had that mechanism, trees wouldn’t be tall.
They need minerals
Nitrogen
Phosphorus
Magnesium
Potassium
Calcium
Copper
For example, nitrogen is used in DNA and in lignin cells, which make the tree rigid.
Fungus can draw water and nutrients from the soil.
Trees can only absorb nutrients from the tip of its roots.
That’s not enough.
Fungus takes sugar from the trees to build their bodies.
They communicate through chemical signals.
Fungus tells the tree to soften their roots so they can enter.
How is the fungus getting the minerals?

It hunts, fishes and strangles.

They developed a system for mining.
They worm their way back and forth until they reach a rock.
They secrete acid and dissolve the rock.
They suck up the minerals.
They can also hunt.
There are some insects living in the soil, called springtails.
Fungi eat them.
They have a way of telling if the insect is dead or alive.
They pierce them and suck the nutrients out of them.
They can even absorb the nutrients from carcasses of animals that seeped into the
soil.
In some trees, 75% of their nitrogen comes from fish.
How much sugar do the trees give to the fungus?

The estimate, which depends on each ecosystem, is from 20% to 80%.

Trees that don’t need sugar right now give it to the fungi.
When they need it, the fungi can give some back.
It’s like a bank system.
Alerting the forest
Trees can also send danger signals through the network to other trees.
So the other trees start producing chemical that tastes bad to prevent insect from
eating them.
If a tree is dying, he’ll send his carbon to his neighbours.
Maybe it’s the fungi that decides who gets what.
Food ends up with new trees that are better at adapting.
This is the intelligence of the forest.
Forests act like one big organism.