Semester 1, Academic Session 2011/2012

(Intake 2010/2011)

- Chapter 1 -
Signals & Systems
Modelling Concepts

S.N. Aqmariah_M.Kanafiah
1.1 What Is a Signal?
1.2 Classification of a Signals.
1.2.1 Continuous-Time and Discrete-Time Signals
1.2.2 Even and Odd Signals.
1.2.3 Periodic and Non-periodic Signals.
1.2.4 Deterministic and Random Signals.
1.2.5 Energy and Power Signals.
1.3 Basic Operation of the Signal.
1.3.1 Operations performed on dependent variables.
1.3.2 Operations performed on independent variables
1.3.3 Precedence Rule for Time Shifting and Time
Scaling.

S.N. Aqmariah_M.Kanafiah
1.4 Elementary Signals.
1.4.1 Exponential Signals.
1.4.2 Sinusoidal Signal.
1.4.3 Sinusoidal and Complex Exponential Signals.
1.4.4 Exponential Damped Sinusoidal Signals.
1.4.5 Step Function.
1.4.6 Impulse Function.
1.4.7 Ramped Function.
1.5 What is a System -System Block Diagram
1.6 Properties of the System.
1.6.1 Stability.
1.6.2 Memory.
1.6.3 Causality.
1.6.4 Inevitability.
1.6.5 Time Invariance.
1.6.6 Linearity.

S.N. Aqmariah_M.Kanafiah

The aim of this course is using mathematical techniques to
help analyze and synthesis systems which process signals.

Engineers must model two distinct physical phenomena :

i) Physical Systems – can be modeled by math equations.
ii) Physical Signals – can be modeled by math functions.

S.N. Aqmariah_M.Kanafiah
A common form of human communication;
i) use of speech signal;
- face to face or telephone channel.
ii) use of visual;
- signal taking the form of images of people or objects
around us.

Real life example of signals;

i) Doctor listening to the heartbeat, blood pressure and temperature
of the patient. These indicate the state of health of the patient.
ii) Daily fluctuations in the price of stock market will convey an
information on the how the share for a company is doing.
iii) Weather forecast provides information on the temperature,
humidity, and the speed and direction of the prevailing wind.

S.N. Aqmariah_M.Kanafiah

By definition; signal is a function of one or more variable, which
conveys information on the nature of a physical phenomenon.

A function of time representing a physical or mathematical quantities.

- e.g.: Velocity, acceleration of a car, voltage/current of a circuit.

An example of signal; the electrical activity of the heart recorded with
electrodes on the surface of the chest — the electrocardiogram (ECG
or EKG) in the figure below.

A short ECG registration of normal heart rhythm (sinus rhythm)

A function of one or more variable, which conveys information on the
nature of a physical phenomenon.

S.N. Aqmariah_M.Kanafiah

Concepts arise and use in various fields;
1)Communication
2) Aeronautics & astronautics
3) Circuit Design
4) Acoustics
5) Seismology
6) Biomedical engineering
7) Energy generation & distribution
8) Chemical process control
9) Speech processing
10) Image processing
11) Economic & Financial Forecasting
12) Weather forcasting& etc…..

S.N. Aqmariah_M.Kanafiah

Signals are function of independent variables.

System response to input signals by producing other signals.

A function of one or more variable, which conveys information on
the nature of a physical phenomenon.

A function of time representing a physical or mathematical
quantities.

Example:-voltage & current are signals. Circuits are systems.

S.N. Aqmariah_M.Kanafiah
1st Example

Automobile driver depresses the accelerator pedal.

The automobile responses by increasing the speed of the
vehicle.

System is the automobile, pressure on pedal is the input
signal, the automobile speed is the response or output
signal.

2nd Example

Control input signal to a robot arm.

The robot responses by producing movement of the arm.

System is the robot arm, control electrical signal is the input
signal, the movement of the arm is the response or output
signal.
Input signal Output signal
System

S.N. Aqmariah_M.Kanafiah

When presented with a specific system, we are
interested in characterizing it in detail to understand
how it will response to input signals.

Examples:-Understanding of human auditory system;

Vocal Tract System; Economic system; Analysis of
circuits; Determination of aircraft response
characteristic due to pilot commands & wind gusts.

S.N. Aqmariah_M.Kanafiah

5 methods of classifying signals, based on different
features, are common;

1.2.1 Continuous-Time and Discrete-Time Signals

1.2.2 Even and Odd Signals.

1.2.3 Periodic and Non-periodic Signals.

1.2.4 Deterministic and Random Signals.

1.2.5 Energy and Power Signals.

S.N. Aqmariah_M.Kanafiah

Two types of signals are present naturally.
i) Continuous-Time
- Signals varying continuously with time or some other variable,
e.g. space or distance.
• Defined for all values of time
• Also called analog signal

ii) Discrete-Time
- Signals that exist only at discrete point of time, e.g. daily
closing stock market average or index.
• Defined at only certain instants of time.

Continuous signal can be converted into a sequence of numbers

(discrete signal) by sampling.
Continuous Discrete
Sampling
signal signal
S.N. Aqmariah_M.Kanafiah

~ functions whose amplitude, x(t) or value varies continuously
with time, t.

A signal x(t) is said to be a continuous- time signal if it is
defined for all time t.

E.g.; speed of car, smell or odour or acoustic wave is
converted into an electrical signal; and microphone, which
converts variations in sound pressure into corresponding
variations in voltage and current.

S.N. Aqmariah_M.Kanafiah
S.N. Aqmariah_M.Kanafiah

Discrete-Time Signals are function of discrete variable, i.e,
defined only at discrete instants of time.

It is often derived from continuous-time signal by sampling at
uniform rate.

Let Ts denotes sampling period;
n denotes integer (+ve & -ve values)

The symbol n denots time for discrete time signal [.] & is used
to denote discrete-value quantities.

Sampling a continous-time signal x(t) at time t = nTs yields a
sample with the value x (nTs ).

~ represented by the sequence of no. …, x [-2], x [-1], x [0], x

[1], x [2], …, which can take on a continuum values.

S.N. Aqmariah_M.Kanafiah

Figure below illustrates the relationship between a continuous-
time signal x(t) & a discrete-time signal x [n].

(a) Continuous-time signal x(t), (b) Representation of x(t) as a discrete-time signal

x[n] .

S.N. Aqmariah_M.Kanafiah
S.N. Aqmariah_M.Kanafiah
Even signal Odd signal