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WAVE PROPERTIES OF LIGHT Chapter - 19
WAVE PROPERTIES OF LIGHT Chapter - 19
WAVE PROPERTIES OF LIGHT Chapter - 19
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Chapter 19
WAVE PROPERTIES OF LIGHT
GOALS
When you have mastered the contents of this chapter, you will be able to achieve the
following goals:
Definitions
Define each of the following terms, and use it in an operational definition:
interference coherent source
optical path length polarization
diffraction noncoherent source
optical activity birefringence
dispersion
Optical Activity
Design an experimental system capable of measuring the optical activity of a solution.
Lasers
Compare the laser with other light sources in terms of their optical characteristics.
PREREQUISITES
Before you begin this chapter you should have achieved the goals of Chapter 16,
Traveling Waves, and Chapter 18, Optical Elements.
Chapter 19
WAVE PROPERTIES OF LIGHT
19.1 Introduction
Can you list some of your everyday experiences that are based on the wave properties
of light? The colors observed in a soap bubble or an oil film on water are some
examples. What wave property of light is involved in these observations? Polaroid sun
glasses are designed to reduce glare from reflected light. What wave property of light is
used in these glasses? The laser is a new light source that has unique properties; can
you name some of these properties?
In this chapter we will explore the experimental basis of the wave phenomena of
light. We will discuss the questions mentioned here and point out some applications of
the wave nature of light.
19.3 Interference
As we pointed out in our discussion of traveling waves, the superposition principle
applied to the wave model produces unique interference phenomena. For waves on a
string we found a complete range of possibilities ranging from total constructive
interference to total destructive interference. The determining factors were the
amplitudes and phase relationships among the waves present at a given place and time.
It was assumed that the waves were of the same frequency with constant phase
differences between any two waves. If the waves had been of different frequencies, the
phase difference between two waves would be continuously varying in time (except for
the special case where the frequencies were all multiples of a common frequency). What
are the necessary conditions for interference phenomena in light waves? What examples
of light interference have you observed in natural phenomena? What results when two
or more beams of light are present in the same region of space? The answer to this
question depends on the nature of the light beams. If the beams are from different
sources (or even different parts of a large single source), the resultant energy at any
point is the sum of the energies produced by the individual beams. Such independent
sources are called noncoherent sources. The law that governs noncoherent sources is
called photometric summation. If the beams are coherent (that is, the beams have a
constant phase relationship during observation), the results of the two or more beams
are the summation of the amplitudes of the individual beams. When the superposition
principle is applied to coherent light beams, the light intensity varies from place to
place, giving rise to intensity maxima and minima called interference fringes. The
maxima occur where the waves are in phase. The superposition principle leads to
constructive interference with the resultant amplitude equal to the sum of the in-phase
amplitudes. The minima (destructive interference) occur in places where the waves are
exactly out of phase (phase differences of one-half wavelength). A graphic example of
constructive and destructive interference due to coherent sinusoidal waves of unequal
amplitude is shown in Figure 19.1. What would you expect if the amplitudes were
equal in these two cases? How can you reconcile interference fringes with the principle
of conservation of energy?
Figure
19.1
Summation
of
two
waves.
(a)
In
phase
(constructive
interference)
and
(b)
out
of
phase
(destructive
interference).
If you wanted to produce interference fringes, how would you do it? Thomas Young
was the first to record such an experiment, and it was accepted as the crucial
experiment in support of the wave model for light. The essentials of Young's
experimental set up are shown in Figure 19.2 .
Figure
19.2
(a)
Diagram
of
experimental
set
up
for
double-‐slit
interference.
(b)
line
drawing
for
double-‐slit
interference
showing
the
path
difference
Δ
as
a
function
of
the
angle
θ.
The
two
slits
have
a
width
w
and
are
a
distance
d
apart.
The
viewing
screen
is
a
distance
L
from
the
slits.
The
distance
along
the
screen
is
x.
A narrow slit in front of the source provides a coherent plane wave that is incident
upon two very narrow slits. Each of these slits acts as a new source, but these two
sources are coherent, spatially separated sources. Every point on the screen represents a
particular optical path length (defined as the path from each slit to the screen along each
straight line). Since the slits are coherent sources with zero phase difference, we should
expect constructive interference where the optical path difference between the two slits
is an integral number of waves.
Δ = mλ (19.2)
where Δ is the optical path difference and m = 0, 1, ... From the geometry of the double-
slit apparatus (Figure 19.2b), we see that this relation can be expressed as:
path difference = Δ = d sin θ
where d = slit separation.
Thus, constructive interference occurs when
Δ = mλ = d sin θ (19.3)
where m = 0, 1, 2, ... and is called the order number.
The zeroth order bright fringe is symmetrically centered with respect to the slits. There
is a first-order maximum on each side of the central bright fringe at an angle θ given
by
sinθ =λ/d. For small angles, sin θ ≅ tan θ, and sin θ ≅ x/L = mλ/d for bright fringes.
EXAMPLE
Given a pair of slits separated by 0.2 mm, illuminated by green light (500 nm) in a
coherent parallel beam, find the separation of the two first-order green fringes on a
screen 1 m from the slits.
The waves from the two slits must be in phase at positions of maximum intensity.
See Figure 19.3. For m = 1 (first order),
d = 2 x 10-4 m, λo = 5 x 10-7 m
sin θ = λ / d
sin θ = 5 x 10-7 / 2 x 10-4 = 2.5 x10-3
Figure 19.3.
We want to find two times the distance between central bright and the first maxima
on either side of the central bright fringe,
2x = 2 x 102 cm x 2.5 x 10-3
x = 5 x 10-1 cm = 5 mm
EXAMPLE
Compare the effective optical path of 10-6 m in a vacuum, air and water. 10-6 m (vacuum)
= 1.0003 x 10-6 m (air) = 1.3333 x 10-6 m (water)
interference. The effective optical path difference between the front and back surface
reflections is 2tnoil, where t is the film thickness. Light reflected from the second surface
travels a distance of 2t in the oil. Thus the condition for constructive interference can be
expressed as
2tn = (m/2)λo (19.5)
for m = 1, 3, 5, ... (constructive) and m = 2, 4, 6, ... (destructive), where t = film thickness
andn is the index of refraction of the film, or
t(purple) = λo/4n = 400 nm/6 = 66.7 nm
t(red) = 700 nm /6 = 116 nm
Consider the similar problem for an oil film suspended on a wire frame in air.
The colors of some insect wings are due to such interference phenomena. (What
information about insect wings could you obtain by studying these color fringes? What
experiments would you do?)
19.7 Diffraction
The bending of waves around objects is common to all wave motion. This wave
phenomenon is called diffraction. Diffraction patterns result from the interference of
waves that travel different distances around objects or through apertures. Consider the
diffraction due to a single slit as shown in Figure 19.5a .
To derive the conditions for destructive interference we divide the slit of width w into
two equal zones (see Figure 19.5b). For destructive interference the waves from zone A
cancel the waves from zone B in pairs. The path difference for these cancelling pairs
results in the following condition for first-order minima: (w/2) sinθ = λ/2 for the first-
order minima on either side of the central bright band.
Higher-order minima are given by path differences equal to odd multiples of one-
half wavelength. This general condition for single- slit diffraction minima can be
expressed as
w sin θ = mλ (19.7)
where m = 1,3,5, ... is the order of the minimum and w is the width of the slit.
EXAMPLE
Find the separation of the two second-order minima for red (600 nm) parallel light
incident on a slit of 0.100 mm width which is 1.00 m from the viewing screen.
w sin θ = 2λ
sin θ = 2 x 6.00 x 10-7 m/10-4 = 12.0 x 10-3
Let x2 be the distance along the screen from the central maximum to the second order
minimum, for small angles
sin θ ≅ x2 / L
so
x2 = 12.0 x 10-3 m
and the separation between the two second-order minima is 2x2 = 24 x 10-3 m = 0.024 m.
Figure
19.6
A
diffraction
grating,
a
screen
with
many
fine
slits
equally
spaced
a
distance
d
apart.
EXAMPLE
Find the angular spread of the first-order visible spectrum from a grating with a
number of lines per unit length N of 10,000 lines/cm. The visible spectrum range is
from 400 nm (purple) to 700 nm (red).
d = 1/N = 10-4 cm
sin θ (purple) = 4 x 10-5 cm/10-4 cm = 0.4
θ (purple) = 23.6°
sin θ (red) = 7 x 10-5 cm/10-4 cm = 0.7
θ (red) = 44.6°
Δθ = θ (red) - θ (purple) = 21° angular spread of first-order visible spectrum
found at the first minimum of the other source. This condition leads to the following
equation for the resolving power of circular apertures:
sin θR = 1.22λ/D (19.8)
where λ = wavelength, D = diameter of aperture, and θR is the angle between two just
resolvable sources. We see that the resolving power may be increased by using shorter-
wavelength light and/or larger apertures.
The resolving power of a telescope is illustrated in Figure 19.7. The images of just
resolvable stars are displayed on a screen in the focal plane of the telescope eyepiece.
The stars, separated by a distance s, are a distance L from the objective lens of the
telescope. The angle subtended by these stars is equal to the Rayleigh criterion angle for
light of wavelength λ and an objective of diameter D.
Figure
19.8
Intensity
plot
of
Rayleigh’s
criteria
for
resolution.
19.10 Polarization
Wave amplitude oscillations in a plane perpendicular to the direction of propagation
are possible only for transverse waves. The orientations of the wave amplitude
vibrations in a plane perpendicular to the direction of propagation are called the
directions of polarization of the wave Figure 19.9. The transverse nature of light, with
its electromagnetic field oscillations perpendicular to the direction of propagation,
makes it possible to observe light polarization phenomena. In general, light sources
produce light waves that are randomly polarized. This means the electric field vector
(sometimes called the light vector) in the electromagnetic wave is vibrating with a
random orientation in a plane perpendicular to the direction of propagation (Figure
19.9) . Why do you think most natural sources produce unpolarized light?
Figure
19.9
Graphical
representation
of
ordinary
light
showing
the
electric
and
magnetic
wave
amplitudes
in
planes
perpendicular
to
the
direction
of
the
propagation
of
the
light.
There are three types of polarizations possible for the electric field vector in xy plane:
plane polarized, elliptically polarized, and circularly polarized. These three
polarizations are illustrated in Figure 19.10. The plane polarized wave can be resolved
into x- and y -components vibrating in phase with each other. The elliptical polarization
can be resolved into x- and y-components not in phase with each other. The circular
polarization can be resolved into x- and y-components 90ø out of phase with each other.
Circular polarization is said to be right handed if the electric field vector rotates in the
clockwise direction as you look at the wave as it travels toward you. Left-handed
circularly polarized light corresponds to the E vector rotation in the counter-clockwise
direction as the wave travels toward you. We can write the following rules for
combining two simple harmonic vibrations of same frequency and amplitude
perpendicular to each other:
1. When the phase difference is an even multiple of π, the result is plane polarization at
45° to both original vibrators.
2. When the phase difference is an odd multiple of π, plane polarization results at 90° to
those of case 1.
3. When phase differences are odd multiples of π/2, circular polarization results.
4. All other phase differences produce elliptical polarizations (see Figure 19.10d).
Figure
19.11
Polarizer
and
analyzer
for
plain
polarized
light.
Other ways to produce polarized light are by the reflection of light from a dielectric
surface or by scattering light from small particles. The boundary value problem of
electromagnetic waves incident upon a dielectric surface yields solutions showing that
the reflected light has various amounts of polarization. There is a critical angle of
incidence, called Brewster's angle, that results in a completely plane polarized reflected
wave. The condition for this critical angle is that the angle of incidence plus the angle of
refraction equals 90°, i + r = 90°. When this condition is imposed on Snell's law, we get
the equation
n1 sin i = n2 sin r
But
sin (90° - i ) = cos i
Thus,
sin i/cos i = tan θB =n21 (19.11)
where n21 is the relative index of refraction of the two media and equals n2/n1, and θB is
the Brewster angle. This is known as Brewster's law, and at the Brewster angle of
incidence, the reflected polarized light will have its electric field plane polarized parallel
to the plane of the reflecting surface. Polarization by reflection at the Brewster angle is
illustrated in Figure 19.12.
There are many materials that have different indices of refraction for different planes
of polarization. This property of having different velocities for the propagation of light
of different polarizations is called double refraction, or birefringence. Calcite, for
example, is a birefringent crystal. For these uniaxial materials the two different
refractive indices are called ordinary and extraordinary, and each is slightly wavelength
dependent Table 19.2.
EXAMPLE
Given the index of refraction for an ordinary beam to be 1.320 and the index of
refraction of 1.330 for the extraordinary beam in a biological specimen (for a 400 nm
light), find the phase difference between these beams after passing through a specimen
1µ thick. t = 10-6 m, λ0 = 400 nm = 4 x 10-7 m
phase difference = 2π (optical path difference) /λ
phase difference = 2π (nc -no)t / λo
= 2π x 10-6 m x (1.330 - 1.320) / 4 x 10-7 m = π/20
Recall that optical path length = t n since λ =λo/ n.
EXAMPLE
A concentration of dextrose of 1.00 g/cm3 produces a rotation of 5.3°/cm of path. If
light passing through 10.0 cm of an unknown dextrose solution is rotated through 8.3
degrees, find the concentration of the unknown. If 5.3° = K x 1 (cm) x 1.00 (g/cm3), and
8.3° = K x 10.0 (cm) x c (g/cm3) then
5.3 / 8.3 = 1.00 (gm/cm3) / 10.0 c or c = 8.30 / 53.0 = 0.156 g/cm3
example, in laser band saws) and drilling small holes with great precision.This well-
focused high power beam has been used in medicine for such things as welding
detached retinas and bloodless surgery using the self-cauterizing property of the laser
beam. Recently the laser has been used to treat patients suffering from diabetic
retinopathy. This condition arises in diabetics when tiny blood vessels deteriorate and
new vessels grow on the surface of the retina. When these vessels hemorrhage into the
normally clear vitreous humor, vision is severely impaired. Scar tissue may also detach
the retina from the back of the eye. A fine laser beam focused on the weakened blood
vessels can produce coagulation and the proliferating new vessels can be destroyed.
The incidence of vision loss has been cut by 60 percent through use of the laser in this
treatment.
A similar application of the laser is the control of hemorrhaging in the
gastrointestinal tract. A fiber optic bundle can be inserted through the mouth into the
stomach. With the bleeding sites visible, the laser can be discharged through the bundle.
The intense laser beam can bring on coagulation and cease hemorrhaging within ten
minutes.
A new use of the laser is being investigated in dentistry. New tooth filling materials
that can be cured by laser radiation are being tested. It is hoped that a material that can
be welded to the tooth with a pulse of laser radiation will be found.
One of the most promising uses in medicine involves the laser in holography. The
hologram is a three-dimensional photograph of the exposed object. This photograph can
be used to reconstruct a three dimensional image of the original object. A diagram of a
set up used for producing holograms is illustrated in Figure 19.14.
The partially silvered mirror produces two coherent beams, a reference beam and a
sample beam. The sample beam is reflected from the object onto the film where it
interferes with the reference beam producing an interference pattern on the film. This
interference pattern contains all of the three-dimensional information available from the
object. When a laser beam strikes this record at the angle of the reference beam, it
produces a three-dimensional image of the original object. Much research has been
devoted to holography, and it offers great potential in many applications. A three-
dimensional hologram television picture would be most useful for producing three-
dimensional images of organs inside of the body.
Sandbox
holography.
(a)
Set
up
for
songle
beam
transmission
hologram.
The
light
source
is
a
3-‐
milliwatt
helium-‐neon
laser.
The
laser
beam
is
incident
upon
a
mirror
which
reflects
part
of
the
beam
directly
to
the
photographic
film,
and
another
part
of
the
beam
is
reflected
from
the
object
(in
this
case
a
toy
airplane)
to
the
film.
Thin
film
is
placed
between
the
glass
plates
held
together
by
spring
clamps.
(b)
A
hologram
taken
with
this
set
up.
(Courtesy
of
Jeseph
Ferry
and
Dr.
Richar
Anderson,
University
of
Missouri-‐Rolla.)
EXAMPLE
It is known that approximately 14 x 10-13 joule is required to kill a single bacterium. Find
the kill rate ΔN/Δt for a 20 watt uv bacterial light if 20 percent of its output is lethal for
bacteria.
effective killing power = 0.2 x 20 J/sec = ΔN/Δt x 14 x 10-13 J/bacterium
Thus
ΔN/Δt = 2.9 x 1012 bacteria/sec
SUMMARY
Use these questions to evaluate how well you have achieved the goals of this chapter.
The answers to these questions are given at the end of the summary with the number of
the section where you can find related content material.
Definitions
1. Assign the correct term to each of the following physical phenomenon:
a. color of a soap bubble
b. solar spectrum produced with a prism
c. intensity pattern of light after passing through a pin hole
d. two beams of laser light used in holography
e. light characteristic when reflected from a dielectric surface
f. the rotation of the plane of polarization by sugar solutions
Optical Activity
9. Sketch a system that could be used to measure optical activity.
Lasers
10. List three important characteristics of laser light.
Answers
1. a. interference (Section 19.3) d. coherent (Section 19.13)
b. dispersion (Section 19.2) e. polarization (Section 19.10)
c. diffraction (Section 19.7) f. optical activity (Section 19.12)
2. reflection, optical path differences (Section 19.5)
3. large (Section 19.8) 4. objective lens (Section 19.9)
5. interference pattern, three- dimensional image (Section 19.13)
6. 100 nm (Section 19.5) 7. LNλ (Section 19.8)
8. 50 percent, n = 1.33 (Section 19.10)
9. source polarizer, sample, analyzer, detector (Section 19.12)
10. coherence, monochromicity, directionality, intensity (Section 19.13)
ALGORITHMIC PROBLEMS
Listed below are the important equations from this chapter. The problems following the
equations will help you learn to translate words into equations and to solve single
concept problems.
Equations
n = λo/ λ, n =c/v (19.1)
d sin θ = mλ m = 1,2,3,... (19.3)
optical path length = nt (19.4)
2nt = m/2λo m = 1, 3, 5, ..., constructive, m = 2, 4, 6, ..., destructive (19.5)
Δθ = 2π (ns -n f) t / λo (19.6)
sin θR = 1.22λ / D (19.8)
2
I = Io cos θ (19.10)
tan θB = n21 (19.11)
θ = KLc (19.12)
Problems
1. The wavelength of one of the lines in the emission spectrum of sodium is 589 nm is a
vacuum. What is its wavelength in heavy flint glass?
2. A coherent parallel beam of the green light (546 nm) of mercury is incident upon a
pair of slits. The separation of the first-order interference pattern is 2 mm from the
central image on a screen 1 meter from the plane of the slits. What is the distance
between the slits? (Hint: sin θ ≅ θ.)
3. What is minimum thickness of an oil film on water that will give destructive
interference for 546-nm light by reflection from the surfaces of the film? n = 1.50.
4. What is the sine of the angle of diffraction for the second-order maxima for the 546
nm light of the mercury spectrum incident upon a diffraction grating with 5000
lines/cm?
5. What is Brewster's angle for water? m = 1.33.
6. A polarizer and an analyzer are set for maximum intensity of transmission. If the
analyzer is turned through 37°, what is the new intensity of transmission?
7. An optically active material of a given concentration c 0 and path length 10 cm
produces a rotation of 10° of the plane of polarization. What would be the
concentration of the same material that would produce the same angle of rotation
for an optical path length of 15 cm?
Answers
1. 357 nm 5. 53°
2. 0.273 mm 6. 0.64 I 0
3. 182 nm 7. 2/3 c 0
4. 0.546
EXERCISES
These exercises are designed to help you apply the ideas from one section to physical
situations. When appropriate the numerical answer is given in brackets at the end of the
exercise.
Section 19.2
1. Plot the index of refraction as a function of wavelength for higher dispersion crown
glass and for heavy flint glass. What is the physical meaning of the slope of the
curve? Compare the slopes at 400 and 600 nm. What is the index of refraction of each
for the 546-nm green light from mercury? [~ 1.523 at 546 nm, ~ 1.656 at 546 nm]
2. If the wavelength of the green line of mercury is 546 nm in a vacuum, what is it in
water? In heavy flint glass? [410 nm, 331 nm]
Section 19.3
3. Two narrow slits are spaced 0.25 mm apart and are 60 cm from a screen. What is the
distance between the second and third bright lines of the inference pattern if the
source is the 546 nm light from mercury? [0.13 cm]
4. Given a double slit with a separation of 0.2 mm, find the separation of consecutive
bright fringes on a screen 1 m from the slits for red (600 nm) parallel light incident
on the slits. [0.3 cm]
Section 19.5
5. What is the minimum thickness of the film of a soap bubble with a refractive index of
1.33 if the film shows constructive interference for the reflection of the yellow
sodium light (589 nm) at normal incidence in air? [110 nm]
6. What is the minimum thickness of a plastic film (index of refraction 1.4) on your eye
glasses which will give destructive inference for the reflection of light of wavelength
560 nm? [200 nm]
Section 19.8
7. What is the wavelength of a line which is diffracted 20° in the first order for normal
incidence upon a transmission grating? What is the second-order diffraction angle
for this wavelength? Assume the grating has a ruling of 6000 lines/cm. [570 nm,
43.2°]
8. For orders greater than one, there is an overlap of orders in the visible spectrum from
a diffraction grating. What is the basic relationship that shows this? What third-
order line coincides with the second-order line of 589-nm light? [393 nm]
Section 19.9
9. Find the resolving power of the 508-cm Mount Palomar telescope. Use 550 nm for the
wavelength of light. Find the separation of just resolvable objects near Jupiter (6.5 x
106 km from earth). [1.32 x 10-7 rad, 0.86 km]
PROBLEMS
Each of the following problems may involve more than one physical concept. When
appropriate, the answer is given in brackets at the end of the problem.
10. For a double refracting crystal such as calcite, the
geometry may be such that only one beam of
light is transmitted while the other is internally
reflected at the surface of a 600 crystal. What are
the largest and smallest incident angles that can
be used to separate the two beams by this
method? Assume a sodium source ( λ = 589 nm).
See Figure 19.15 . [26.9°, 40.2°]
22. For objects that are not self illuminating the criterion for resolution is given in terms
of the radius of the first dark fringe of the diffraction of a circular aperture. The
diffraction fringe radius r is given by r = 0.61 λ/n sin i, where i is the angle
subtended by the aperture at the object, λ is the wavelength and n is the index of
refraction of the object space. Two objects are said to be resolved when the
separation of images is equal to the diffraction fringe radius.
a. Find the percent improvement in resolving power of a microscope that is obtained by
using an oil immersion lens system with n = 1.5.
b. Find the separation of just resolvable objects in green light (500 nm) if n sin i (called
the numerical aperture) is one. [33 percent, 305 nm]
23. A standard sugar solution (1 g/cm3) is found to rotate the plane of polarization of
light by 5.4° per cm of path length. A sugar sample of unknown concentration
rotates the plane of polarization through 10.6° in a 5 cm long sample tube. Find the
concentration of the sample. [0.4 g/cm3]
24. The Brewster angle for a specimen is 55° for 500-nm light. If the specimen is 0.001
mm thick, find the phase shift introduced by this specimen as compared with an
equal thickness of water. [72°]
25. A thin wedge of air is formed between a sheet of glass 5 cm long and a horizontal
glass plate. One end of the sheet of glass is in contact with a glass plate. The other
end is supported by a thin metal film 0.05 mm thick. The horizontal plate is
illuminated from above with light 589 nm. How many dark interference fringes are
observed per cm in the reflected light? [17 fringes/cm]
26. Given a single slit of width D =kλ, where k = constant, find the angle of the first-
order minimum for each of the following values of k: a. 1; b. 10; c. 100; d. 1000.
[a. 90° b. 5.7° c. 0.57° d. 0.0057°]
27. Given a diffraction grating with 5000 lines per cm, find the diffraction angles for
bluish-purple (400 nm) light in the first and second order. At which order does the
400 nm light overlap the reddish-orange light (600 nm)? [11.5°, 23.6°, third]
28. A helium-neon laser source produces a second-order spectrum for light of
wavelength 632.8 nm at an angle of 30° using a certain diffraction grating.
a. Find the angle for the first-order sodium yellow (λ = 589 nm).
b. Assume the grating is a reflection grating of 1-m focal length. Find the second-
order separation in the focal plane for the sodium doublet lines of λ equal to 589.0
and 589.6 mm. [a. 13.5° b. 0.7 mm]
29. The axes of a polarizer and an analyzer are oriented at 60° to each other.
a. If polarized light of intensity I is incident on the analyzer system, find the
intensity of the transmitted light.
b. If the incident light (intensity I )is plane polarized at an angle of 30° with respect
to the polarizer axis, find the intensity of the transmitted light. [a. 0.25 I ; b. 0.188 I ]
30. What is the minimum thickness of a water film on glass that will give destructive
interference for 546-nm light by reflection from surfaces of the film? [102.4 nm]