3.

1 Study of IS 875 1987 and IS 456 2000:

IS 875 deals with the various load cases that act upon a structure and ways to calculate
them. There are various parts of the code that deal with the various load types such as dead load,
live load, wind load, snow load and various special loads and load combinations.
The Code gives the unit weights of various materials as well as the values of imposed
loads that act in various types of structures and parts of these structures.
IS 456 deals about the standard values of minimum and maximum percentages of steel to
be used in the structural member and standard formulas used for the calculation of loads and the
minimum percentage of distribution reinforcement to be used in the member are to be known.

3.2 Preparation of Building Layout using AutoCAD:

The layout for the building was prepared using AutoCAD. The various layouts were
prepared and then later discussed for error correction.
AutoCAD or Computer Aided Design is a very helpful tool in drafting and designing any
structure. AutoCAD uses a Graphical User Interface for the purpose of drafting and designing
any structure. The software has various inbuilt tools for complex drafting. Also AutoCAD can be
used for 2D, 3D and for perspective design. With the help of AutoCAD all the drafting for the
project has been done.
It allows designers to draw 3D objects with more intelligent data associated rather than
simple objects. The data can be neither programmed to represent products sold in building
industry (nor) extracted in to file for pricing material estimation etc.
In this project, Auto CAD is used for drafting and modelling of structure and detailing of
various structural elements has been completed. Therefore, it saves time

3.3 Analysis and Design using STAAD Pro:

Once the layout of the building was approved by the architect the layout was transferred
from AutoCAD to STAAD Pro using a DXF file format. Once the layout was transferred,
multiple stories were created using the Translational Repeat Tool in Staad Pro. After this
member properties were assigned. Next the load cases were generated and applied to the
structure. Once the loads were applied the structure was analysed and corrections were made to
the structure for the various errors that were generated while the structure was being analysed.
After the analysis, we started designing the structure by entering the DESIGN tab in
STAAD Pro. All the design parameters were entered and load cases selected. This completes the
design of the beam, columns and slabs.
 For designing the foundation STAAD foundation program is opened and the structure
along with the load cases is transferred. Once this is done the soil conditions and the type of
foundation is entered. After this the program analyses and designs the foundation.

3.4 Method of analysis:

Different approaches to structural analysis are
1. Elastic analysis based on elastic theory

2. Limit analysis based on plastic theory / ultimate load theory.

Role of Structural Analysis in Design Process of a Structure

Architectural Layout

 Structural Modelling
Structural Model

 Structural Analysis
Response of Structural Model in Services NO
 Structural Design
Adequacy

 Construction YES
Constructed Structure

3.5 Design Process:

Structural design is an art and science of designing, with economy and elegance, safe,
serviceable and durable structure.
Process of designing commences with planning of a structure, primarily to meet
functional requirement of the user (or) client.

3.5.1 Stages in structural design:

 Structural planning
 Estimation of loads
 Analysis of structure
 Member design
 Drawing, detailing and preparation of schedules.
3.5.2 Principle elements of R.C. framed building:

 Slabs to cover large area

 Beams to support slabs and walls
 Columns to support beams
 Footing to distribute concentrated loads over large area of supporting a soil.

After getting the architectural plan of a building structural planning of building is done.
Structural planning of the building consists of the following:

 Column positions
 Beam positions
 Spanning of slabs
 Layout and planning of stairs
 Type of footing

3.6 Design philosophies:

RC structures can be designed by using
 Working stress method (WSM)
 Ultimate load method (ULM)
 Limit state method (LSM)
3.6.1 Working stress method WSM:
This method of design was the oldest one. It is based on the elastic theory and assumes
that both steel and concrete and elastic and obeys Hook’s law. It means that the stress is directly
proportional to strain up to the point of collapse. Based on the elastic theory, and assuming that
the bond between steel and concrete is perfect, permissible stresses of the materials are obtained.
The basis of this method is that the permissible stresses are not exceeded anywhere in the
structure when it is subjected to worst combination of working loads.
In this method, the ultimate strength of concrete and yield strength or 0.2% proof stress
of steel are divided by factors of safety to obtain permissible stresses. These factors of safety
take into account the uncertainties in manufacturing of these materials. As per IS456, a factor of
safety of 3 is to be used for bending compressive stresses in concrete and 1.78 for yield/proof
strength of steel.

 Assumptions of Working Stress Design Method

1. Plane Section before bending will remain plane after bending
 2.Bond between steel and concrete is perfect with in elastic limit of steel
3.The steel and concrete behaves as linear elastic material
4.All tensile stresses are taken by reinforcement and none by concrete
5.The stresses in steel and concrete are related by a factor known as “modular ratio
6.The Stress-strain relationship of steel and concrete is a Straight line under
working load
 Limitations of working stress method
1. The assumptions of linear elastic behaviour and control of stresses within
specially defined permissible stresses are unrealistic due to several reasons viz.,
creep, shrinkage and other long term effects, stress concentration and other
secondary effects
2. Different types of load acting simultaneously have different degrees of
uncertainties. This cannot be taken into account in the working stress method
3. The actual factor of safety is not known in this method of design. The partial
safety factors in the limit state method is more realistic than the concept of
permissible stresses in the working stress method to have factor of safety in the
design.
3.6.2 Ultimate load method:
In this method, ultimate or collapse load is used as design load. The ultimate loads are
obtained by increasing the working/service loads suitably by some factors. These factors which
are multiplied by the working loads to obtain ultimate loads are called as load factors. These load
factors give the exact margins of safety in terms of load. This method used the real stress-strain
curve of concrete and steel and takes into account the plastic behavior of these materials.
Many designers feel that the load factor provides a clear margin of safety and one can
easily tell the load at which the structure fails, which is not clear from the working stress concept
of permissible stresses. This method was given in detail in IS 456-1964.

 Assumptions of ultimate load Method

1. Stress in reinforcement varies linearly with strain up to the specified yield strength. The
stress remains constant beyond this point as strains continue increasing. This implies that
the strain hardening of steel is ignored.
2. Concrete sections are considered to have reached their flexural capacities when they
develop 0.003strain in the extreme compression fibre.
3. Strains in reinforcement and concrete are directly proportional to the distance from
neutral axis. This implies that the variation of strains across the section is linear, and
unknown values can be computed from the known values of strain through a linear
relationship.
4. Tensile strength of concrete is neglected. Compressive stress distribution of concrete can
be represented by the corresponding stress-strain relationship of concrete.
  Limitations of ultimate load method:
1. This method gives very thin sections which leads to excessive deformations and cracking,
thus making the structure unserviceable.
2. No factors of safety are used for material stresses.
As the serviceability requirements are not satisfied at all in this method, the code replaced
this method by limit state method which takes into account the strength as well as serviceability
requirements.
3.6.3 Limit state method:
This is the most rational method which takes into account the ultimate strength of the
structure and also the serviceability requirements. It is a judicious combination of working stress
and ultimate load methods of design. The acceptable limits of safety and serviceability
requirements before failure occurs are called a limit state. This method is based on the concept of
safety at ultimate loads (ultimate load method) and serviceability at working loads (working
stress method).
The two important limit states to be considered in design are :
1. Limit state of collapse.
2. Limit state of serviceability.
1. Limit State of Collapse
This limit state corresponds to the strength of the structure and categorized into following
types:

 Limit state of collapse: Flexure.

 Limit state of collapse: Shear and bond.
 Limit State of collapse: Torsion.
 Limit state of collapse: Compression.

2. Limit State of Serviceability

This limit state corresponds to the serviceability requirements i.e., deformation, cracking
etc. It is categorized into following types:

 Limit state of deflection.

 Limit state of cracking
 Limit state of vibration.

This method is based upon the probabilities variation in the loads and material properties.
Limit state method takes into account the uncertainties associated with loads and material
properties, thus uses partial factors of safety to obtain design loads and design stresses.
a
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t The limit state method is based on predictions unlike working stress method which is
deterministic in nature, assumes that the loads, factors of safety and material stresses are known
accurately. In the limit state method, the partial safety factors are derived using probability and
statistics and are different for different load combinations, hence giving a more rational and
scientific design procedure.

3.7 LOADS:
The types of loads acting on structures can be broadly classified as vertical loads,
horizontal loads and longitudinal loads. The vertical loads consist of dead load, live load and
impact load. The horizontal loads comprises of wind load and earthquake load.
In a construction of building two major factors considered are safety and economy. If the
loads are adjudged and taken higher then economy is affected. If economy is considered and
loads are taken lesser then the safety is compromised.
So the estimation of various loads acting is to calculated precisely by using Indian
standard code IS: 875–1987-Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other Structures
specifies various design loads for buildings and structures.
Different types of loads to be considered

1. Dead load (or) Self weight

2. Live load (or) Imposed load
3. Wind load (if the structure is above 15m height )
4. Earthquake load (or) Seismic load

5. Snow loads
6. Special loads.
3.7.1 Load distribution in a structure:

Fig 3.1: Load distribution in a structure

  Characteristic load:
It is defined as that value of load which has 95% probability of not being exceed during
life time of structure.

 Design load (Fd)= F.O.S× characteristic load.

 Unit weight of materials:
1. Asbestos sheet : 140-160 KN/m2
2. Brick work : 20 KN/m2
3. PCC : 24 KN/m2
4. RCC : 25 KN/m2
 Load combinations: Different load combinations are made they are
1. Maximum load = 1.5(DL+LL)
2. Minimum load = 0.9(DL) (... LL = 0)
 Calculation of loads :
1. Slabs – Area × unit weight
2. Beams :
w lx
2.1 Beams supporting one way slab - (supporting longer side)
2
w lx
2.2 Beams supporting two way slab - (supporting shorter span)
2
w lx 1
- {1- } (supporting longer span)
3 2β
3. Columns: The actual load on column can be obtained by calculating first the
load on beams and their end shears (v). The total load acting on any column is
the algebraic sum of shear (v) at the end of all beams meeting at column, the axial
load coming from upper column and its self weight.

3.8 Categorization of columns based on loads:

 Internal column / axially loaded
 Side column / axial loaded with uniaxial bending
 Corner column / axial load with biaxial bending
1. Internal column / axially loaded column:
If vertical axial loads act on the centre of gravity of the cross-section of the column, then
it is termed as axially loaded column. Axially loaded column is rare in construction since
coinciding vertical loads on the centre of gravity of column cross section is not practical.
 Interior column of multi-storey buildings with symmetrical loads from floor slabs from
all sides is an example of this type of column.

Fig 3.2: Axially loaded column

2. Side column / axially loaded column with uniaxial bending:
When vertical loads do not coincide with centre of gravity of column cross section, but
rather act eccentrically either on X or Y axis of the column cross section, then it is called
uniaxial eccentric loaded column. Column with uniaxial loading are generally encountered in the
case of columns rigidly connected beam from one side only such as edge columns.
Side columns of multi-storey buildings are an example of this type of column.

Fig 3.3: Axially loaded bending with uniaxial bending

3. Corner column / axially loaded column with biaxial bending:

When vertical on the column is not coincide with center of gravity of column cross
section and does not act on either axis (X and Y axis), then the column is called biaxially
eccentric loaded column.
Columns with biaxial loading are common in corner columns with beams rigidly
connected at right angles at the top of columns.
 Fig 3.4: Axially loaded column with biaxial bending
3.9 Grouping of columns:
Once load on each column and effective lengths are determined, the column which have
total load on them not varying 10-20% and which have equal effective length. May be grouped
together.
The column carrying maximum load may only designed in that group and same section is
adopted for all columns in that group.