CHAPTER 4

AMPLIFIER BASICS
An amplifier is an electronic circuit with one or more inputs and an output. Signal
sources are connected to the inputs and a load is connected to the output. The
essential function of an amplifier is simplest to conceive in the case of a single-input
amplifier: such an amplifier has to produce an output voltage/current waveform,
which has exactly the same shape as that of the input signal (voltage or current), but
the output power delivered to the load is higher than the input power delivered by
the signal source to amplifier. In the case of multi-input amplifiers, the shape of the
output waveform has to be determined by a linear combination of the input signals. It
is reasonably obvious that an amplifier has to be a linear circuit, i.e. it has the two
following properties:
(i) Homogeneity – if an input signal x(t) causes an output signal y(t), then an input
signal ax(t) will cause an output signal ay(t), where a is any real number.
(ii) Additivity – if an input signal x1(t) causes an output signal y1(t) and an input
signal x2(t) causes an output signal y2(t), then an input signal
x(t) = x1(t) + x2(t) will cause an output signal y(t) = y1(t) + y2(t).
In addition to being linear, an amplifier has also got to have a fixed relationship
between the input signal x(t) and the output signal y(t) irrespective of the shape of
x(t) and the value of t when the signal is applied. This is possible only if the circuit is
time-invariant also.
In fact, only a linear time-invariant circuit permits an analysis in terms of its
sinusoidal steady-state response, which is essential for analysing the performance of
an amplifier in terms of its responses to sinusoidal input signals having different
frequencies.
The fact that the output power of an amplifier has to be more than its input power
requires that an amplifier be an active circuit, as a passive circuit necessarily
dissipates a part of the input power. Of course, the extra power delivered by an
amplifier to its load is drawn from one or more d-c power supplies which have to be
connected to the active device(s) incorporated into an amplifier.
An amplifier is thus a linear, time-invariant and active circuit. Based on these
essential features, circuit models will be developed for amplifiers, suitable
parameters will be defined for characterising an amplifier and amplifiers will be
classified according to their functional and structural properties. As the sinusoidal
steady-state response completely specifies the behaviour of a linear time-invariant
network, only sinusoidal excitations will be considered throughout this chapter as ell
as in all future discussions on amplifiers.

4.1 GAIN PARAMETERS OF AMPLIFIERS

A single-input amplifier can be conveniently looked upon as a as a linear time-
invariant four-terminal network, as shown in Fig. 4.1.1, where the input terminals are
denoted by 1 and 1', and the output terminals, by 2 and 2'. The voltages and currents
indicated in Fig. 4.1.1(a) are all sinusoidal functions of time having some given
frequency. On the other hand, all the voltages and currents indicated in Fig 4.1.1(b)
are the phasors corresponding to the respective variables:
V1 and I1 thus denote the input voltage and current of the amplifier, while V2 and I2
denote the output voltage and current, V1, I1, V2, I2 being all complex in general. The
input is given to the two-port through a voltage source VS in series with an
impedance ZS. This may represent an independent non-ideal voltage source or may
represent the Thevenin equivalent of any other network connected at the terminals l-
l'. The load ZL represents either the terminating impedance ZL or the impedance
presented by another network connected at the terminals 2-2'.
The parameters used to specify an amplifier are defined as follows, in terms of the
phasors V1, I1, V2 and V2:
V2
Voltage gain AV = (4.1.1)
V1
I2
Current gain Ai = (4.1.2)
I1
Re [-V2I2*]
Power gain Ap = , * denoting complex conjugate. (4.1.3)
Re [V1I1*]
It should be borne in mind that the voltages and currents used in Eqns. (4.1.1) to
(4.1.3) and hence the values of these gain parameters depend on the source and load
connected to the amplifier, i.e. on the values of ZS and ZL as shown in Fig 4.1.1.
It is obvious from these equations that Av and Ai are in general complex but Ap is
always real. The power gain Ap as defined in Eqn. 4.1.3 is the ratio of the average
sinusoidal steady state power flowing out of the network at the output port to the
average sinusoidal steady state power flowing into the network through the input
port. The negative sign in the numerator of Eqn. 4.1.3 is the consequence of the
choice of the reference directions of the currents: power delivered to the load is
positive if I2, pointing into terminal 2, is negative. For any amplifier, the power gain
Ap must always be greater than one.
The voltage, current and power gains have been defined as ratios of voltages,
currents and powers respectively. It is customary to express the magnitudes of these
gains in a logarithmic scale in terms of decibels as follows.
Voltage gain in decibels: Gv = 20 log10 Av db (4.1.4)

Current gain in decibels: Gi = 20 log10 Ai db (4.1.5)

Power gain in decibels: Gp = 10 log10 Ap db (4.1.6)

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4.2 IMPEDANCE PARAMETERS OF AMPLIFIERS
At the input, an amplifier can be represented simply by the impedance it presents to
the signal source. This impedance is defined as the Input Impedance
V1
Zi = (4.2.1)
I1
In general, the value of Zi will depend on the value of the load impedance ZL
connected at the output port. Most practical amplifiers are unilateral, i.e. variations in
the load are not reflected on the input i-v relationships, and as such Zi is independent
of ZL. Such a unilateral amplifier can then be represented by fixed impedance Zi
between the terminals 1 and 1'.
At the output port, an amplifier can be represented either by its Thevenin’s
equivalent or by its Norton’s equivalent. The impedance appearing in this equivalent
circuit is given by the ratio of the open-circuit voltage to the short-circuit current at
the output port, i.e. Output Impedance
V 2 ZL → ∞
Zo = − (4.2.2)
I2 ZL = 0
Zo is, in general, a function of the source impedance ZS. However, as in the case of
the input impedance, Zo is also independent of ZS for a unilateral amplifier.
The input and output impedances play significant roles in the performance of on
amplifier. This may be illustrated by considering the amplifier used in a typical
public address system. In such a system, the signal source is a microphone having a
resistive source impedance ZS (= RS) lying in the range 104 – 105 ohms, and the load
is one or more loudspeakers in parallel, leading to a resistive load impedance of the
order of a few ohms. Clearly, to ensure a proper amplification of the signal available
from the microphone, which has an open-circuit voltage of the order of a few tens of
millivolts, the amplifier must not only have adequate voltage gain, but must also have
a high enough input impedance. In order to include the attenuation due to the
potential division between ZS and Zi an Overall voltage gain AvS is defined as
follows:
V2 AvZi
Avs = = (4.2.3)
VS Zi + ZS
Similarly, there is a loss of the output signal due to sharing between Zo and ZL, and
this effect can be brought out by expressing Av in the form
Avo ZL V2
Av = , where AV0 = ZL → ∞ (4.2.4)
ZL + Zo V1
is the open-circuit voltage gain of the Amplifier:

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4.3 CIRCUIT MODELS OF AMPLIFIERS
An equivalent circuit for an amplifier can be constructed by utilising Eqns. 4.2.1 and
4.2.4, as shown in Fig. 4.3.1(a). The controlled source in this equivalent circuit is a
Voltage Controlled Voltage Source (VCVS) and as such this equivalent circuit is
generally referred to as the VCVS model of an amplifier, where:
V2
AV0 = ZL → ∞ (4.3.1)
V1

The voltage source in Thevenin’s equivalent used to represent the amplifier at its
output port may alternatively be considered to be a Current Controlled Voltage
Source (CCVS) resulting in the CCVS model shown in Fig. 4.3.1(b). The control
parameter Zmo in this model is the open-circuit Transimpedance of the amplifier:
V2
Zmo = ZL → ∞ (4.3.2)
I1
Two other models can be obtained if the Norton’s equivalent is used instead of
Thevenin’s equivalent for the amplifier at its output port. If the current source in the
Norton’s equivalent is considered to be controlled by the input current I1, one obtains
the CCCS (Current Controlled Current Source) model given in Fig. 4.3.1(c), where
the control parameter Ai s is the short-circuit Current Gain
I2
Ais = ZL = 0 (4.3.2)
I1
Alternatively, the current source in the Norton’s equivalent may be considered to be
a Voltage Controlled Current Source (VCCS), resulting in the VCCS model of Fig.
4.3.1(d), where the control parameter Yms is the short-circuit Transadmittance of the
amplifier:
I2
Yms = ZL = 0 (4.3.3)
V1

4.4 IDEAL AMPLIFIERS

A study of the circuit models given in Fig. 4.3.1 brings out the fact that, in each of
these models, it is the controlled source which is actually responsible for the
amplification, whereas the associated input and output impedances are really
deleterious to the performance of an amplifier. Ideally, an amplifier should just be a
controlled source, requiring no input power to be drawn from the signal source, and
wasting no part of the controlled source output in the out put impedance. Depending
on the type of the controlled source, therefore, the requirements on the input and
output impedances are as given in Table 4.4.1. If the controlling variable is V1, one
must have I1 = 0 to ensure that the input power is zero, which requires Zi → ∞ ; on
the other hand, if I1 is the controlling variable, zero input power requires V1=0, which
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 Table 4.4.1. Ideal Amplifier Configurations
Sl. Controlled source Gain Input Output
No. Parameter Impedance Impedance
1 Voltage Controlled V2 Zi → ∞ Zo → 0
Voltage Source (VCVS) Avo =
V1
2 Current Controlled V2 Zi → 0 Zo → 0
Voltage Source (CCVS) Zmo =
I1
3 Current Controlled I2 Zi → 0 Zo → ∞
Current Source (CCCS) Ais =
I1
4 Voltage Controlled I2 Zi → ∞ Zo → ∞
Current Source (VCCS) Yms =
V1
in turn requires Zi = 0. At the output port, a voltage source (Thevenin’s equivalent)
model calls for Zo = 0, while a current source model (Norton’s equivalent) has to
have Zo → ∞ .
The actual design of any amplifier is always aimed towards the realisation of one of
these controlled sources as close to the ideal model as possible. The choice of the
type of controlled source is generally decided by the active device used; e.g. a BJT is
more amenable to the CCCS model, a MOSFET is a close approximation of the
VCCS model, while an operational amplifier (OPAMP) fits much better into the
VCVS model.

4.5 PRACTICAL AMPLIFIERS

Amplifiers can be broadly classified on the basis of their structure, signal handling
considerations, gain, and frequency response characteristics.
4.5.1 Single-Stage and Multi-Stage Amplifiers
Any practical amplifier consists of one or more active devices embedded in a passive
network. The maximum gain-bandwidth product that an amplifier can provide is
limited by the active device used in the amplifier. If a large GBW product is required,
the amplifier contains large number of active devices embedded in a suitably
designed passive environment. To design or analyse such an amplifier, it is
convenient to break it into smaller units called ‘stages’. Thus if the requirement of
GBW product is modest, a single stage of amplification is sufficient. Otherwise we
have to use a multi-stage amplifier consisting of several amplifier stages in cascade.
4.5.2 Small-Signal and Large-Signal Amplifiers
If the active devices used in the amplifiers are biased to remain in their linear regions
of the output characteristics for the range of amplitudes of the input signal handled
by the amplifier, the amplifier is called a small-signal amplifier. In this case, the
device can be modelled as a linear time-invariant circuit and the overall amplifier
thus behaves as a linear time-invariant system. On the other hand, the device in a
large-signal amplifier is deliberately driven into nonlinear regions and as such, the
linear equivalent circuit of the device no longer valid.
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4.5.3 Voltage, Current and Power Amplifiers
Amplifiers are also classified according to the requirements on the gain. If the
voltage gain is of primary interest and the current gain is of secondary importance,
one uses a small-signal amplifier closely approximating a VCVS; such amplifiers are
called voltage amplifiers. It should be noted that in the case of voltage amplifiers the
current gain can even be less than one. Similarly, we have current amplifiers where
the current gain is of primary interest and the voltage gain is of little concern and can
even be less than one. A current amplifier is also a small-signal amplifier and
approximates a CCCS. In a power amplifier the interest is to obtain the maximum
possible power output from the active device without exceeding the device
limitations. As a consequence, power amplifiers are usually large-signal amplifiers.
4.5.4 D-C, Lowpass and Band-pass Amplifiers
Irrespective of the earlier classification, any amplifier can also be classified by its
frequency response. The plot of the magnitude of the gain versus frequency is called
the gain characteristic and that of the phase of the gain versus frequency is called the
phase characteristic. For an amplifier which preserves the waveshape of any arbitrary
input waveform, the gain must be constant, independent of frequency.. The gain and
phase characteristics of an amplifier constitute the frequency response of an
amplifier. An amplifier having the gain characteristics shown in Fig. 4.5.1(a) or (b) is
called a low-pass amplifier. However, due to the fact that the amplifier with gain
characteristic of Fig 4.5.1(a) can amplify d-c signals also, it is specifically called a
d-c amplifier. An amplifier with the gain characteristic in Fig 4.5.1(c) is called a
bandpass amplifier. It should be noted that for a bandpass amplifier the centre-
frequency is very much larger than the bandwidth.

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