TRIBAL COMMUNICATION &

COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY
TRIBALS LIVING IN FOREST AND RURAL AREAS
A COMPARATIVE STUDY

2020
RESEARCH PROJECT

RESEARCHER: RESEARCH GUIDE

Jagruti Mayee Dash Mr. Deepak Kumar
BA-JMC 6th Sem. Lecturer

Department of Journalism and Mass Communication

Faculty of Communication
School of Technology, Communication & Management
Dev Sanskriti Vishwavidyalaya, Gayatrikunj- Shantikunj, Haridwar
 DEPARTMENT OF JOURNALISM & MASS
COMMUNICATION
Dev Sanskriti Vishwavidyalaya,
Gayatrikunj-Shantikunj, Haridwar- 249411,
Uttarakhand
(established by the act of uttarakhand Government & duly recognized by the University Grant Commission)

Date:

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that Ms. Jagruti Mayee Dash is a student of Bachelors of Arts in Journalism and
Mass Communication ( semester 6th) in the department of Journalism and Mass Communication
of Dev Sanskriti Vishwavidyalaya, Haridwar. She has completed her dissertation ‘ Tribal
Communication and Communication Technology in context to tribals in Koraput ( Odisha )’
under my guidance & Supervision. This study is her original work.

I am Happy to forward this Research Project for Examination and hope for her bright future.

Supervisor
Date:

Mr. Deepak Kumar

Lecturer
Dept. for Journalism & Mass Communication
Dev Sanskriti Vishwavidyalaya
Haridwar-249411

Phone: +91-1334-261367,262094 (Ext.5493), Fax: +91-1334-260723-260866,

Website: www.dsvv.ac.in Email id: journalism.masscom@dsvv.ac.in
 Acknowledgement
It is always a pleasure to remind the people of this University for their sincere support and
guidance I have received to uphold my knowledge and experience in this subject. I thank
profusely to the university where I’m pursuing my studies.

First of all thanks to Gurudev and Mataji for their blessings throughout my research project to
complete it successfully.

Secondly I would like to thank Prof. Sukhnandan Singh, Head of the Department for
suggesting the topic I’ve worked on. His suggestions in building more scholarly interest in the
project.

Thirdly, I also want to express my deep and sincere gratitude to Mr. Deepak Kumar, Lecturer,
Department of JMC, DSVV for giving me the opportunity to do
research and providing invaluable guidance throughout this project. He has always inspired me
to view the things in a new perspective. It was a great privilege and honor to conduct this study
under her guidance. His timely advice, meticulous scrutiny, scholarly advice have helped me to
accomplish this project. My sincere thanks to Mr. Armendra Amar for teaching us the basics of
research which helped me to finish this project.

I would also like to express my heartfelt thanks to my parents whose support and blessings were
made to complete this research , my Maternal Aunt without her the data collection would not
have been possible.

And my biggest thanks to my batchmates Kartikeya, Ruchi, Satyanjali, Medha, Manish, Saumya,
Bhawna,Tanushka, Avantika, Saurabh Tanya who helped me throughout, gave me a healthy
environment and motivated me to stick on to this research project and the culmination of three
years of learning.

Finally I thank all the people who have supported me to complete the research work directly or
indirectly.
Contents
Chapter 1: Introduction 2-10
1.1: Need for the study 4
1.2: Literature Review 5
1.3: Significance of the Study 8
1.4: Objectives 9
1.5: Research Methodology 9
1.6: Limitations of the Study 10

Chapter 2: Introduction to Tribe 12-24

2.1: What is Tribe? 12
2.2: Who are Tribal? 12
2.3: Demographics of Tribes in Odisha 14
2.4: Tribal communities of Odisha 17

Chapter 3: Tribal Communication and Communication Technology 26-42

3.1: Tribal Communication
3.1.1: Tribal Communication Techniques 26
3.1.2: Tribal: Role of Development Communication 30
3.2: Communication Technology 30
3.2.1: New Media in brief 34
3.2.2: New Media: Form of Communication 35
3.2.3: Communication Technology and Tools 37
3.2.4: Reach of Communication Technology 37
3.3: Role of ICT in Development Communication 40

Chapter 4: Comparative Study of Research Papers 44-50

Paper 1: Ekka, Nancy(2013)- Impact of Modernisation on Tribal Religious Customs
and Traditions: A Case study of Rourkela. 44
Paper 2: Mahananda, Ramakanta(2015)- Tribal Communication Technology: Case
study of Kondhs of Odisha. 48

Chapter 5: Problems and Gap 52-60

5.1: Reasons of the Gap between the two communities 52
5.2: Steps to stand for them 56

Chapter 6: Conclusion and Suggestions 62-65

Biblography: Cross Reference & References 67

 1

Chapter 1:

Introduction

1.1: Need for the study

1.2: Literature Review

1.3: Significance of the Study

1.4: Objectives

1.5: Research Methodology

1.6: Limitations of the Study

 2

Introduction

The tribal and indigenous peoples of India constitute an important segment of the Indian
population. They are duly listed in the Constitution, which also accords them special rights and
privileges. Both the Government and the Non-Government Organisations (NGOs) have been
engaged in their socio-economic development ever since Independence. But the question is
whether the tribals have benefited from the various development interventions and been
empowered in the country’s federal structure in terms of governance and political participation.
About one-third of the Indian tribals still subsist through hunting and gathering or slash and burn
cultivation, and there are tribal bonded labourers in the coffee plantations of Tamil Nadu and in
the villages of Daltonganj and Giridih in Jharkhand, not to mention those who work in the stone
quarries in Uttar Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh. Considerable disparities also persist, although
they are narrowing, in literacy and educational development. As against the national average of
74.04%, the literacy rate of the Scheduled Tribes (STs) was around 59.0% in 2011. More than
three quarters of the ST women were illiterate. These disparities are compounded by higher
dropout rates in formal education, resulting in the ST representation in higher education being
disproportionately low. Not surprisingly, the cumulative effect has been that the proportion of
the STs below the poverty line is substantially higher than the national average. As per the latest
estimates of the Planning Commission released on 12th March, 2012, 47.40% of the rural and
30.04% of the urban ST population was still living below the poverty line in 2009-10, compared
to 33.8% and 20.9% respectively of the total population.
Tribal communication technology brings with it new characteristics which often expand
the horizons of information spread among the people of different tribes. As many parts of India
adopt the new technologies of the information, the tribal people of Odisha do not too readily
abandon their ancient and traditional communication methods, which are not necessarily anti-
theatricals to the Internet. As exciting as the new technologies are, they do not always portend
positive developments. The Odishan experience at adopting information and tribal
communication technologies is very instructive. Over the years, we have tried several methods of
technology transfer, adoption, copying and missteps from the ancient and traditional
technologies. Today, it is difficult to pinpoint how far we have gone in our drive to become a
technologically-developed state. Whatever stage and type of technology that is imaginable in the
whole country, (the internet inclusive) is provided in Odisha. The question really is how
extensive and what impact have these technologies on the tribal people and their economy?
Surely our communication sector is not as coordinated and developed as it should be. But before
vanishing the ancient and traditional communication technologies of it is now time to discuss and
use it at the time of need to maintain a healthy society. 1

1
Tribal Communication Technology; Ramakanta Mahananda
 3

Communication is universal to all human beings and is central to our lives. In fact, it
regulates and shapes all human behaviour. Dreaming, talking with someone, arguing in a
discussion, speaking in a public meeting, participating in a traditional cultural function, escaping
from a beast, alerting the people at time of danger, reading of a newspaper, watching television,
browsing the internet etc are different kinds of communication that we are engaged in every day.
It means we are constantly exchanging our thoughts, ideas and motions with someone or other
either to satisfy our physical, emotional or other needs or to get work done. It is obvious that
communication is an integral part of one’s life. In fact, society cannot survive in the absence of
communication.Communication is more than mere transferring or transmission of ideas or
thoughts. It is a dynamic process of action and interaction towards a desired goal.
Communication is, therefore, a process of sharing or exchange of ideas, information, knowledge,
attitude or feeling among two or more persons through certain signs and symbols.
Communication is vital for human existence and for the progress of humanity. No interaction
with others. Being at the heart of all social action and interaction, communication functions as a
related tool that creates understanding, facilitates work and strengthens collective living among
people. Rapidly, we approach the final phase of the extensions of man the technological
simulations of consciousness, when the creative process of knowing will be collectively and
corporately extended to the whole
of human society. Human beings are engaged in a variety of communication processes;
intrapersonal, interpersonal, group and mass communication, the last one being unique in the
sense that it differs somewhat from other forms of communication because of a mechanical
device interposed between sender and receiver. One way to analyse communication is to present
it in the form of a model.
In a communication process there has to be a sender whose main intention is to
communicate a message; what to convey is his/her thinking process; how to communicate a
message is his/ her choice of right means or channel; and whom
to convey the message is his/her job to decide. The sender also needs to know the receiver’s
response to the message, whether or not it is being received as intended, Then only can the
sender proceed further with the next act of communication and in this way it goes on and on. In
this interaction process, there is an interdependence of relationship among the various variables
of human communication. Communication programmes should always be planned and based on
the needs of the target audience.
 4

Need for the Study

The communication techniques used by the Tribal Communities is different as compared to
the tribal living in Sub-rural and other areas.
They have their own society where they strictly preserve their culture and tradition along with
their communication techniques whereas the communities who left their roots are now getting
acquainted to the new methods of communication and learning them.

The new communication technology is getting its space in people’s life but still there is a
population who are out of all these technology and vast developing society.

According to other researches done on tribal communities a tribe member can understand
language of other tribes only one or two stage above or below; the communication technology
we are using in developing era is very different from theirs. The society they live in has every
thing different from ours. For example they have their own economy which still follows the
barter system for buying and selling of objects.

Tribal communities have some special gems regarding many aspects like medical treatments,
organic farming and the technique of communication in order to preserve their culture. These
communities I have decided to study on community Saura who are the still living in the forest
with a different society. This community has its mention in epics like The Ramayana and The
Mahabharata. Today the society is moving back to olden times which connects us with our roots
and the real culture. But the dilution in the culture and tradition has made us a long way to cover
the path. Here the tribal community can help us for the same but the communication technology
is being a barrier between these two different society. The research’s main need is to find out the
real barrier between these societies and build a bridge so that the societies.

By the hearing the term tribal or Adivasi people start separating them from themselves and
ignore them. Similarly when the tribal people leave there native for educational and employment
purpose they are not easily accepted by the developing society. My study on this particular topic
would help both the society to join hands to learn and work for together for each other without
any communication technological barrier.

In order to reach and interact to tribal communities we need the help of the middle men who
are the tribal living in Sub-rural or rural part of tribal geographical areas. They are facing the
problems and can also be the solution to the next generation tribal communities.
 5

Literature Review

Books:
● Von Fürer-Haimendorf, Christoph(1982)
Tribes of India: The Struggle for Survival

This book tells of observation among Indian Tribal Populations spanning the period from 1940 to
1980.

● Meena, Subhash (2014)

Historical perspective of Different Tribal Groups in India

It states about the culture of a few tribes and how tribes emerged in historical time.

● Singh, K.S. (1987)

Chhotanagpur Raj Mythology, structure and Ramification, in Surajit Sinha (ed), Tribal Politics
and state system in Pre-Colonial Eastern and North Eastern India, Calcutta: K.P.Bagchi &
Company.

● Vidyarthi, L.P. (1976)

Future of Traditional Primitive Societies: A Strategy for their Development” paper presented in
the workshop on the Marginal and Prefarming Tribes of Eastern Central India, Ranchi

● Chapter 9: Communication Technology

Magazines and Journals:

● Jamal, Amir (2014)
“NGOs, Participatory Development and Construction of Identities: Involving Men in Gender
and Development (GAD) Programs in South Asia”, World Journal of Social Science Vol. 1, No.
2. This is a journal in which the issues related to tribals are mentioned.

● Khalid, Malik Zahra(2012)

Media and Development Communication:A Perspective

 6

This paper is a part of the International journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume
2. It states about the global scenario of development communication, which has shifted to the
availability of new communication channels. The communication technology is gradually being
designed with the main focus of development in context to interpersonal communication.

● Dr. V. Rajeshwar

Expansion of Communication Media Technology and its impact in tribal villages: A case Study
of Gargotwadi Village in Nanded district (MS).

This Special edition of the Asia Pacific Journal shows how electronic media, radio has
influenced and made communication easy for tribal communities.

● Chaudhury, Bhagirathi (1996)

Tribes and Development, Orissa
Today, An Annual Survey, Sun Times, Bhuvaneshwar.
These both are the sections of a journal which says a lot about the surveys done in tribal areas
regarding their development.
● Chopra, K. (1989)
Forty years of resource management: The gainers and losers, Social Action.
The article states about the various management skills by the different groups of society.
● Shirsalkar, P.R. (1988)
Primitive Tribes: Challenge for Development in Tribal Research Bulletin, Vol. 7, No.2
States about the tribals in Maharashtra.
● Nag, Baishakhi (2011)
Global Media Journal- Indian Edition, Winter Issue Vol. 2/ No.2, Mass Media & ICT in
Development Communication: Comparison & Convergence.
● Ghoshmaulik, S.K (2011) {editor of the Journal}
Etribaltribunal it is online journal with 8 volumes and sub parts. Each part is described with
major issues of tribes in Odisha and the neighbouring state.

Research Papers:
● Kandakai,D.E.S (1988)
The Role of Research in Development Communication at the Liberian Rural Communication
Network

The research paper says about the importance and necessity of research in such fields of
Development Communication.

● Mahananda, Ramakanta (2015)

 7

Tribal Communication Technology: Case study of Kondhs of Odisha.

This paper helped me to select my tribe for study. This explains the complete culture of the
specific tribe and modern communication involvement within them.

● Roy Burman, B.K. (1995)

Tribal Situation and Approach to Tribal Problems in India: A Preliminary Appraisal, Discussion
Paper, Rajiv Gandhi Institute for contemporary Studies, New Delhi.

● Ekka, Nancy (2013) Impact of Modernisation on Tribal religious customs and traditions:
A case study
● Ln. T. Pushpanathan, Information and Communication Technologies in Education
● Garola, Radha & Singh , Krishna

Analytical study on the Technological Problems of Rural India and their Remedies.

● Dutta, Ankuran(2009)

Communicating Science to the Tribal Communities of Assam through Hands- on Training in the
hands- on Science Network Hands- on Science for All: Quest for Excellence.

Reports:
1. Department of Women and Child development (1995), Ministry of HRD GOI: Fourth World
Conference on Women, Beijing.

2. Government of India, (1961), Report of the Scheduled Areas and Scheduled Tribes
Commission (Chairman –U.N.Dhebar).

3. Government of India, Ministry of Home Affairs: Tribal Development in Fifth Plan, some
Basic Papers. Vol. I, (1975), Report of the study Group on Relief of Indebtedness, Land
Alienation and Restorations in Tribal Development Agency Areas.

4. Ministry of Rural Development (1994), People’s protection programme through Chakriya

Vikas Pranali: A case study, Department of Wasteland Development, GOI, New Delhi.

5. World Youth Report, 2003 Chapter 12: Youth and Information and Communication
Technologies(ICT)

6. Orissa DATA Highlights: The Scheduled Tribes, Census of India 2001, Source: Office of
Registrar General of India.
 8

Significance of the Study

1. Individual:
a. This study can help individuals to provide a new platform for the viewers to
justify their problem for better guidance. It will also aware the individuals about
the development program later resulting in involvement in such matters and
helping them by support of people at personal level for development.

2. Professional:
a. My study would boost up the tribal section of development communication.
b. The hidden part of these communities will be transparent; their skills would be a
new option to the profession of craftsmen.

3. Social:
a. It will help the government to work for these tribes for their development and
their involvement in society.
b. It would help both the societies to gain some positive changes within themselves.
c. The societies would kill their separatism regarding each other.
d. The tribal communities would get the help and can enjoy the facilities by the
government. Which would decrease the number of Naxalites and Maoists.

4. Academic:
a. The results of my study may have implications for future project implementation.
b. The subject would give a new section to Socioeconomic structure in primary
educational level.
c. Scope of tribal education at their ease would also be possible.
 9

Objectives

● A Comparative study of two tribal communities in context to communication and

traditions.(Sub-rural and forest living tribal communities)

● Find out the basic communication techniques of both the groups.

● To find the various types of hindrance and why they are away from a developing society.

Research Methodology

1. Research design:

Qualitative research

2. Research Methods:

Survey of a particular tribal community in Koraput, Odisha.

Case studies: Comparative Study

Comparative Study of two Researches.

 10

Limitations:

1. My research is restricted to two particular tribal communities.

2. Communicating with a tribe would be a challenge as their language/dialect is different

from ours.

3. Winning their trust for close study is another challenge as not all tribes accept guests
easily.

4. Location of my study is subject to reach due to academic reasons.

5. The COVID 19 outbreak is the major issue which also kept me away from the books
related to my topic.
 11

Chapter 2:

Introduction to Tribe

2.1: What is Tribe?

2.2: Who are Tribal?

2.3: Demographics of Tribes in Odisha

2.4: Tribal communities of Odisha

 12

What is tribe?

According to Sociology: The word “Tribe” is derived from the Latin word “Tribus” meaning
“one third”. The word originally referred to one of the three territorial groups that united to form
Rome. Romans applied the word “tribus” to the 35 people who became a part of Rome before
241 B.C.2

A tribe is a social group, which occupies a definite area. It is characterized by cultural

homogeneity and a unifying social organization. The identity and culture of tribes are closely
linked to the natural resources and the environment in which they live.’

To this context according to Anthropology: Tribe,is a notional form of human social organization
based on a set of smaller groups (known as bands), having temporary or permanent political
integration, and defined by traditions of common descent, language, culture, and ideology.3

Who are Tribal

The word tribal came from the main word which is Tribe. The term tribe is used in many
different contexts to refer to a category of human social group. The predominant usage of the
term is in the discipline of anthropology. The definition is contested, in part due to conflicting
theoretical understandings of social and kinship structures, and also reflecting the problematic
application of this concept to extremely diverse human societies. The concept is often contrasted
by anthropologists with other social and kinship groups, being hierarchically larger than a
lineage or clan, but smaller than chiefdom, nation or state. These terms are equally disputed. In
some cases tribes have legal recognition and some degree of political autonomy from the
national or federal government, but this legalistic usage of the term may conflict with
anthropological definitions.

The word tribal means:

● adj. of or characteristic of a tribe or tribes.

● noun. Members of tribal communities, especially in South Asia.

2
http://www.yourarticlelibrary.com/tribes/tribe-what-is-the-meaning-of-tribe/32954
3
https://www.britannica.com/topic/tribe-anthropology
 13

The definition of tribal is relation to a group or community with similar ancestors, customs and
traditions. An example of a tribe used as an adjective is the phrase “tribal traditions” which
means the traditions of a group of people who have a common ancestor. In India and Indian
Subcontinent it is well known as Adivasi, Adivasi Janjati, Janjaati etc.

According to the Merriam-Webster dictionary the word tribal is the adjective form of tribe &
tribe means

➔ a social group comprising numerous families, clans, or generations together with slaves,
dependents, or adopted strangers.
➔ A political division of Roman people originally representing one of the three original
tribes of ancient Rome.
➔ Phyle: the largest political subdivision among the ancient Athenians
➔ A group of persons having a common character, occupation, or interest
➔ A category of taxonomic rank below a sub family

According to Oxford Dictionary

➔ a group of people consisting of families that are related to each other and who have the
same customs, language, religion, etc., and often live in a particular area
➔ a group or class of people, especially of one profession
➔ (biology) a group of related animals or plants
➔ (informal or humorous) a large number of people

Adivasi is the collective term for tribes of the Indian Subcontinent, who are considered
indigenous to places within India wherein they live, either as foragers or as tribalistic sedentary
communities. However, India does not recognize Tribe as Indigenous people. The term is also
used for ethnic minorities, such as Chakmas of Bangladesh, Tharus of Nepal, and Bhils of
Pakistan.

They comprise a substantial minority population of India, Nepal and a minority group of the
Sri Lankan society called the Vedda, making up 8.6% of India's population, or 104 million
people, according to the 2011 census, and a large percentage of the Nepalese population. Adivasi
societies are particularly prominent in Andhra Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Gujarat, Jharkhand,
Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Odisha, West Bengal, and Northeast India, and the Andaman and
Nicobar Islands.

Though considered to be the original inhabitants of India, present-day Adivasi formed after
the decline of the Indus Valley Civilisation, harboring various degrees of ancestry from ancient
hunter-gatherers, IVC-people, Indo-Aryan, and Austroasiatic and Tibeto-Burman language
 14

speakers. Tribal languages can be categorized into five linguistic groupings, namely
Andamanese; Austro-Asiatic; Dravidian; Indo-Aryan; Sino-Tibetan; and Kra-Dai.

It is a modern Sanskrit word specifically coined for that purpose in the 1930s by political
activists, and recognized by the Supreme Court of India. In Hindi, Adivasi means "Original
Inhabitants," from adi 'beginning, origin'; and vasin 'dweller' (itself from vas 'to dwell'), thus
literally meaning ‘original inhabitant’.

Although terms such as atavika, vanavasi ("forest dwellers"), or girijan ("mountain people")
are also used for the tribes of India, adivasi carries the specific meaning of being the original and
autochthonous inhabitants of a given region, and the self-designation of those tribal groups. The
constitution of India grouped these ethnic groups together "as targets for social and economic
development. Since that time the Adivasi of India have been known officially as Scheduled
Tribes." Article 366 (25) defined scheduled tribes as "such tribes or tribal communities or parts
of or groups within such tribes or tribal communities as are deemed under Article 342 to be
Scheduled Tribes for the purposes of this constitution".4

Demographics
A substantial list of Scheduled Tribes in India are recognised as tribal under the Constitution of
India. Tribal people constitute 8.6% of the nation's total population, over 104 million people
according to the 2011 census.

One concentration lives in a belt along the Himalayas stretching through Jammu and
Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, and Uttarakhand in the northwest, to Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura,
Arunachal Pradesh, Mizoram, Manipur, and Nagaland in the northeast. In the northeastern states
of Arunachal Pradesh, Meghalaya, Mizoram, and Nagaland, more than 90% of the population is
tribal. However, in the remaining northeast states of Assam, Manipur, Sikkim, and Tripura, tribal
peoples form between 20 and 30% of the population. Other tribal peoples, including the Santhals,
Oraon, Munda, and Ho live in Jharkhand and West Bengal. Central Indian states have the
country's largest tribes, and, taken as a whole, roughly 75% of the total tribal population live
there, although the tribal population there accounts for only around 10% of the region's total
population.

Smaller numbers of tribal people are found in Odisha in eastern India; Karnataka, Tamil
Nadu, and Kerala in southern India; in western India in Gujarat and Rajasthan, and in the union

4
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adivasi
 15

territories of Lakshadweep and the Andaman Islands and Nicobar Islands. About one percent of
the populations of Kerala and Tamil Nadu are tribal, whereas about six percent in Andhra
Pradesh and Karnataka are members of tribes.

The scheduled tribe population in Jharkhand constitutes 26.2% of the state. Tribals in
Jharkhand mainly follow Sarnaism, an animistic religion. Chhattisgarh has also over 80 lakh
scheduled tribe population.Assam has over 60 lakh Adivasis primarily as tea workers. Adivasis
in India mainly follow Animism, Hinduism and Christianity.

As per 2001 Census, the Scheduled Tribe (ST) population of the State of Orissa is 8,145,081.
This constitutes 22.1 percent of the total population of the State and 9.7 percent of the total tribal
population of the country. The state holds 3rd and 11th rank among the States/UTs in terms of
ST population and the proportion of ST population to total population of the State respectively.
The decennial growth of ST population has been 15.8 per cent, which is 0.5 per cent lower than
the growth of population (16.3 per cent). The State has a total of sixty two (62) Scheduled Tribes,
and all have been enumerated at 2001 census.

The Scheduled Tribe population in the State is overwhelmingly rural, with 94.5 per cent
residing in villages. District wise distribution of ST population shows that Malkangiri district has
the highest proportion of STs (57.4 per cent) followed by Mayurbhanj (56.6 per cent), Rayagada
(55.8 per cent) and Nabarangapur (55 per cent). Puri district has the lowest by proportion of STs
(0.3 per cent).5

source: http://orienvis.nic.in/WriteReadData/links/2011_Child%20Sex%20Ratio%20graph-
557723812.jpg

Population : Size & Distribution

Out of sixty two (62) STs, Khond is the most populous tribe with a population of 1,395,643
constituting 17.1 percent of the total ST population. Gond is the second largest tribe, having a
number of 782,104. having 9.6 per cent share in the total ST population. Six other tribes namely,
Santal, Kolha, Munda, Saora, Shabar and Bhottada along with Khond and Gond constitute 64.2
per cent of the total ST population of the State. Bhumij, Bhuiya, Oraon, Paroja and Kisan have a
population ranging from 248,144 to 321,592. Together, they form 18.1 per cent. Five STs,
namely, Bhumia, Binjhal, Koya etc. having population in the range of 103,537 to 196,846

5
http://orienvis.nic.in/index1.aspx?lid=343&mid=1&langid=1&linkid=234
 16

constitute 9 percent of total ST population. Remaining forty four (44) tribes along with the
generic tribes constitute the residual 8.8 per cent of total ST population of the State.

Five tribes namely Chenchu, Mankidi, Desua Bhumij, Ghara, Tharua are very small groups
having less than 500 population. 4. District wise distribution of the individual ST shows that
Khond have the highest proportion (93.3 per cent) in Kandhamal district, followed by Nayagarh
(76.9 per cent), Baudh(76.4 per cent), and Rayagada (71.1 per cent) districts. Gond has the
highest concentration in Nabarangapur districts followed by Nuapada district whereas Santal and
Kolha are primarily concentrated in Mayurbhanj district. Other four STs, Munda, Saora, Shabar
and Bhottada are primarily concentrated in Sundargarh, Bargarh, Gajapati and Nabarangapur
districts respectively.

Sex Ratio & Literacy Rate:

The over all sex ratio of the ST population in Orissa is 1003. It shows the prevalence of
females and is higher than the national average (978) for all STs. At individual tribe level, except
Santal, all the major tribes of the state have over all sex ratio higher than that of the national
average. Females outnumber the males among Khond, Shabar, Saora and Gond tribes.

The sex ratio among the STs, in the age group 0-6 years (979) is slightly higher than that of all
STs at the national level. Except Santal, Saora and Kolha, the five major tribes have higher child
sex ratio than that of the national average.

The overall literacy rate of the STs has increased from 22.3 per cent in 1991 to 37.4 per cent
in 2001. Despite this improvement, the literacy rate among the tribals is considerably below the
national average (47.1per cent). Male literacy has increased from 34.4 percent to 51.5 per cent
while female literacy has gone up from 10.2 percent in 1991 to 23.4 percent during 1991-2001.

Among the numerically major tribes, Gond has the highest percentage of literates (47 per
cent) followed by Saora, Santal, Munda, Shabar (35.4 per cent) etc. Gond have also registered
the highest female literacy . Bhottada has the lowest percentage of female literates, preceded by
Kolha and Khond.

Among tribal literates, 44.7 percent are either without any educational level or have attained
education below primary level. The proportion of literates who have attained education up to
primary and middle levels constitute 28.7 percent and13.7 percent respectively. Literates, who
are educated up to matric/secondary/higher secondary etc. have a share of 11 per cent only.
Graduates and above are 1.5 per cent while nontechnical & technical diploma holders constitute
less than half per cent (0.4 per cent). Among numerically larger group Santal have the highest
proportion of matriculates followed by Munda and Kolha.
 17

Out of total 21.4 lakh tribal children in the age group 5 -14 years, only 9.8 lakh attend school
constituting 45.8 per cent. Alarmingly, as many as 11.6 lakh children in the corresponding age
group do not go to school. Among the major tribes, Gond and Saora have more than half of the
total children in the corresponding age group attend school; this proportion is above 40 per cent
among Khond, Munda, Shabar and Santal.

Religion:

Hinduism is the predominant religion of the State (94.4 percent). As many as 88.2 per cent STs
are Hindus. Christian tribal constitute 7.4 per cent. The STs professing ‘Other Religions and
Persuasion’ account for 4.2 per cent. A negligible 0.2 per cent (13,782) of the tribals are Muslims.
The tribes who follow Sikhism (251), Buddhism (175) and Jainism(196) are in negligible
numbers.

Tribal Communities in Odisha

In India there is an amalgam of 437 tribes, and in Odisha the number is 62. According to 1981
Census, in Odisha the total strength of tribal population is approximately six million (5,915,067),
which constitutes 22.43% of the total population of the State.The Kondha have a population of
about one million and are based in the south-west, around Koraput, and near Sambalpur.The
Santals with a population over 500,000 live around.

Linguistically the tribes of India are broadly classified into

four categories, namely (1) Indo-Aryan speakers (2) Dravidian speakers, (3) Tibeto-Burmese
speakers, and (4) Austric speakers. In Odisha the speakers of the Tibeto-Burmese language
family are absent and therefore Odisha tribes belong to other three language families. The Indo-
Aryan language family in Odisha, includes Dholki-Oriya, Matia, Haleba, Jharia, Saunti, Laria
and Oriya (spoken by Bathudi and the acculturated sections of Bhuiyan, Juang, Kondha, Savara,
Raj Gond etc.). The Austric language family includes eighteen tribal languages namely, Birija,
Parenga, Kisan, Bhumiji, Koda, Mahili Bhumiji, Mirdha-Kharia, Ollar Gadaba, Juang, Bondo,
 18

Didayee, Karmali, Kharia, Munda, Ho, Mundari and Savara. And within the Dravidian language
family there are nine languages in Orissa, namely: Pengo, Gondi, Kisan, Konda, Koya. Parji, Kui,
Kuvi and Kurukh or Oraon.The tribes of Orissa though belong to three linguistic divisions, yet
they have lots of socio-cultural similarities between them. These commonalities signify
homogeneity of their cultures and together they characterise the notion or concept of tribalism.
Tribal societies share certain common characteristics and by these they are distinguished from
complex or advanced societies.

The Saura, with a population over 300,000 live near Bolangir in the west. The Bonda, are
known as ‘the Naked People’, and have a population of about 5000 and live in the hills near
Koraput.

The Kisans are the main residents of Sundergarh, Sambalpur and Keonjhar. They speak the
Kisan dialect along with Odia, Hindi and English. THey are farmers and food gathers and they
are famous for their Dance and Music. Kutra Village in Sundergarsh District is a major Tribal
Village and the main residents of this village are the Toppo’s.

As per the Constitution(Scheduled /tribes) /Order, 1950, the following were listed as
scheduled tribes in Orissa:

Bagata, Baiga, Banjara, Banjari, Bathudi[Bathuri}, Bhootada, Dhotada, Bhuiya, Bhuyan,

Bhumia, Bhumij [Teli, haladipohria, Haladi pokharia, Desi, Desia, Tamaria], Bhunjia,
Binjhal, Binjhia, Binjhoa, Birhor, Bondo Poraja, Dal, Desua Bhumji, Dharua, Didayi, Gadaba
[Bodo, Gutob, Kapu, Ollara, Parenga, Sano], Gandia, Ghara, Gond, Gondo[Rajgond,
Maria,Dhur], Ho, Holva, Jatapu, Juang, Kandha Gauda, Kawar, Kharia, Kharian[Berga,
Dhelki, Dudh, Erenga, Munda, Oraon, Khadia, Pahari], Kharwar, Kisan, Kol, Kolah Loharas,
Kol Loharas, Kolha, Koli, Malhar, Kondadora, Kora, Korua, Kotia, Koya, Kulis, Lodha[ Nodh,
Nodha, Lodh], Madia,Mahali, Mankidi, Mankirdia, Matya, Munda, Munda Lohara, Munda
Mahalis, Mundari, Omanatya, Oraon, Parenga, Paroja, Pentia, Rajuar, Santal, Saora, Savar,
Saura, Sahara, Shabar, Lodha, Sounti, Tharua.

Mainly tribes are found in the following areas:

Kondh: Keonjhar, Kandhamal, Sambalpur, Bolangir, Koraput, Ganjam and Sundergarh.

Saura: Koraput, Ganjam and Bolangir.

Gond: Sambalpur, Bolangir, Koraput, Kalahandi and sundergarh.

Santal: Mayurbhanj, Balasore, Bolangir and Keonjhar.

Paraja: Koraput, Kalahandi and Sundergarh

 19

Gadaba: Koraput, Naurangpur nd Malkangiri

Koya: Koraput and Malakangiri

Oraon: SAmbalpur, Sundergarh, Gunupur and Bonai

Bhuiji: Mayurbhanj, Sundergarh, Keonjhar, Balasore and Pallahara

Bonda: Koraput and Malkangiri

Juang: Keonjhar and Dhenkanal

Chumtia Bhunjaia: Nuapada and Malkangiri

Diyadi: Malkangiri

Lodha/Sabar: Mayurbhanj

Thumba: Ganjam

Bhuyan: Angul and Sundergarh

Ho: Keonjhar and Sundergarh

According to odishatourism’s official site we have classified only a few types of tribes and their
lifestyle in a few lines. The tribes they explained are:

a) Santhals

b) Bhumia

c) Bonda

d) Kondh

e) Gond

f) Oraon

g) Sora

a) Santhals:

The Santals are part of the Austro-Asiatic family, distantly related to Vietnamese and Khmer.
This tribe habitation is mainly in the states of West Bengal, Bihar, Odisha, Jharkhand and Assam.
 20

Historians believe that they were the ancestors of the tribal community residing in the eastern
part of India (excluding hill portions). The Santal language, Santali, belongs to the Munda(or
Mundari) branch of the Austro-Asiatic language family.

b) Bhumia:

The Bhumia tribe of Odisha has a rich cultural heritage and is also considered as the most
heroic of all tribal communities of the state. It is believed that the Bhumias are a sub-caste of the
Baiga tribe living in Madhya Pradesh and Chhattisgarh. The Bhumias, unlike other tribes, speak
Desia, a lingua-franca of Koraput rather that a separate language. Esteemed as the most-
celebrated tribe in the state, Bhumia tribe is rich in tradition and culture. The unique marriage
trends and peculiar rituals make Bhumia a must-visit tribe in India.

c) Bonda:

The Bonda people are tribal people who currently live in the hills of Odisha’s Malkangiri
district in India. There are two different Bonda tribes: the Upper Bondas are the most isolated
from mainstream Indian society, and the Lower Bondas. One of the country’s primitive tribes
living in the quaint hills in Malkangiri district, Odisha. The unique culture, enthralling customs,
and typical attire make Bonda the most popular tribal community in the state.

d) Kondh:

Kondhs are a tribal community in India. Traditionally, hunter- Gatherers, they are divided
into the hill-dwelling Kondhs and plain-dwelling Kondhs for census purposes; all the Kondhs
identify by their clan and usually hold large tracts of fertile land but still practice hunting,
gathering and slash-and-burn agriculture in the forests as a symbol of their connection to and
ownership of the forest. Kondhs speak the Kui and Kuvi languages and write them in Odia script.

They are a designated Scheduled Tribe in the states of Andra Pradesh, Bihar, Chhattisgarh,
Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Odisha and West Bengal. Kond is one of the largest tribes in
Odisha who worship hills, nature, and streams. The people of the Kondh tribe have an essential
knowledge of the mountains, trees, forest, and plants.

e) Gond:

The Gonds are ribal community mostly found in the Gond forests of central India. They are
widely spread in the Chhindwara Districts of Madhya Pradesh, Bastar district of Chhattisgarh
and also in the parts of Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh and Odisha. They are the largest Dravidian
tribe. Historically, they were the most important group of original Indian tribes. In the 1500s,
several Gond dynasties were established and the Gond Rajas ruled until they were conquered by
 21

Muslim armies in 1592. In the 1700s the Gond lost all power to Maratha kings, who forced them
to escape into the hills.

f) Oraon:

The Oraon or Kurukh, also spelled Uraon or Oram, are an ethnic group inhabiting in Indian
states of Jharkhand, Odisha and Chhattisgarh. They speak languages such as Kurukh, Sadri and
Hindi which are from the Dravidian family of languages. They write using the Devanagari script.
In stature, they are short or blow medium in height. They are considered as the most progressive
and developed tribes amongst all mentioned in the list, Oraons are mastered in tea plantation.
Today, many of the Oraon people are shifted to Indian metro cities.

g) Sora:

The Soras is a prominent tribal community with a patriarchal society in the Rayagada
District of Odisha and specific pockets of Koraput and Gajapati districts. The Soras speak Sora, a
Munda language. However, written language in Sora is not Followed by all. They practice
shifting cultivation, with a few gradually taking up settled agriculture.

Some of the other Tribes are:

Sauras:

Sauras is one of the ancient tribes in India that also find their mention in the Hindu epics
of Mahabharata and Ramayana. The tribe has a unique shamanic culture and its people are the
great craftsmen of Saura paintings.Apart from Odisha they also live in Jharkhand, Madhya
pradesh and West Bengal. During the British Raj, they were classed as one of the ‘Criminal
Tribes” under criminal tribes act 1871, and still suffer from social stigma and ostracism in
modern times. They traditionally are forest-dwelling tribes and rely on the forests for their
livelihood.

Koyas:

Amongst the more than 60 Odisha’s tribes, Koyas is one of the top tribes with rich ancient
tradition, culture, art, and customs. Apart from Malkangiri, Odisha, the chivalrous people of
Koya tribes also reside in some parts of Andhra Pradesh and Chattisgarh.

Parajas:
 22

They are the devotees of numerous gods and goddesses, the Parajas are the inhabitants of
forests and hills. The people of this beautiful community have a different passion and love for
music and dance and are mainly agriculturists.

Gadavas:

They are said to be the oldest and ancient tribe in Odisha that traces its history from the
Ramayana era to Gadava. It is also the most colourful tribe that sustain their livelihood through
agriculture, hunting, and fishing.

Juang Tribe:

Juang (Patuas, literally “leaf-wearers”), a jungle tribe of Orissa, India. They are found in
only two of the tributary states, Dhenkanal and Keonjhar, most of them in the latter. They are
estimated to amount in all to about 10,000. Their language belongs to the Munda family. They
have no traditions which connect them with any other race, and they repudiate all connexion with
the Hos or the Santals, declaring themselves the aborigines.They are proficient in basket making,
which is in demand in nearby caste villages. The juangs would exchange their baskets for salt, oil,
food, money from the village traders but with increased contact with the Hindu villages they
have taken up the worship of Hindu Goddess Lakshmi and are slowly being absorbed into the
Hindu Caste system as a basket making caste group.

Apart from Odisha they also live in Jharkhand, Madhya pradesh and West Bengal. During
the British Raj, they were classed as one of the ‘Criminal Tribes” under criminal tribes act 1871,
and still suffer from social stigma and ostracism in modern times. They traditionally are forest-
dwelling tribes and rely on the forests for their livelihood.

Kissan:

Kissan tribes call themselves as Kunha, Nagbansis, Nagesar and Nagesia. They speak Cunha
language. They erect houses with the help of mud, wood, bamboo, leaves, straw, rope and
handmade fire baked tiles. The economy of these tribes is a collection of forest produce,
agriculture and domestication of animals, craft making and casual labour. Collection of these
forest produce is not only for the purpose of consumption but, also for the purpose of getting
money by selling them in market.

Didayees:

Didayees are the important tribal race. They are said to be the progeny of Bondas. They
maintain their distinctive identity and have their own language. They construct the house with
the help of wood and bamboo, colour the walls and maintain neat and clean. They maintain a
 23

distinct cultural life, hospitality and method of treatment of disease. For the development of these
tribes, there is a Didayee development Organisation formed by the Government.

Matia:

Matia derives their name from two words, Mati, meaning Soil, and Bhu, meaning earth,
which denotes their long association with the soil and the land. These tribes lead a simple life.
They cultivate Maize, tobacco leaf and vegetables. They are treated as low among the tribes in
many places. They consume alcoholic drinks and smoke cigars(Pikha), beedis and chew betel
leaves.

Dharua:

Apart from Odisha, these tribesa are also seen in Madhya Pradesh and Chattisgarh. This
tribe has got their own language, culture and traditions. These tribes are also known as the Dhur
Gond and Naik. They speak an Indo- Aryan language, Kudmali, at home. Hindi, Odia and
Bengali are used for group communication and they use the odia script. Rice and wheat are their
staple food, supplemented with roots, tubers, vegetables, pulses, seasonal fruits and milk. Rice
Beer(Handia) and mahua liquor are their favorite drinks.

Bathudi:

These tribes are mostly seen on the plains in the rural areas. They speak Oriya. Cultivation is
their main occupation. Their houses are made up of mud walls and thatched roofs and love to
decorate their walls with multi-coloured floral designs. Their dress is scanty and wore silver
ornaments. Tattooing (Khada) is one of the popular among the Bathudi women and also, before
marriage, a Bathudi girl tattoos one or two floral designs on her forehead or arm. Their marriage
takes place either in the house of the groom or the bride. Both the systems are prevalent.

Mirdhas:

Mirdha means head coolie. They speak Kurukh, Mirdha and Oriya to communicate with
others. They are non-vegetarians and rice and wheat form their staple diet. They smoke beedis,
indigenous cheroots and consume alcoholic drinks. Both men and women use gudaku, a paste
made of tobacco powder.

Binjhal:

The Binjhal tribes migrated from the Vindhya, satpura and Aravalli hills of Madhya
Pradesh and settled in Sambalpur district of Odisha. They speak the sambalpuri dialect of Oriya
 24

and use the Oriya script for both intra- and intergroup communication. These tribes can be
identified by their dress, ornaments and tattoo marks. Their staple food is Rice and wheat and
they are nonvegetarians. They chew betel leaves and use guraku. Men smoke an indigenous
cheroot (pika), beedis and cigarettes.

Sounti:

The term Sounti means to collect some items. They speak Oriya. Their staple food is rice
and they are also non-vegetarians. Mustard and sesame oil are used for cooking. Both the men
and women of the community consume home-made rice beer. They drink milk. Some of them
smoke beedies and chew betel leaves.

Durua:
Duruas are a smaller group of tribes differentiated from others by their physical
appearance. Their physique is very similar to the African Negroes, medium stature having well
developed chests and massive shoulders with broad noses. Their hair is black, coarse and curly
and has scanty growth of beard and moustache. Duruas are mostly found in Jeypore, Boipariguda,
Kundra and Kotpad blocks of the district. They are divided into various different clans like Soma,
Surya, Yadu, Kadamb, Gangu, Garg etc. Traditionally Duruas were engaged by the native kings
as quasi-military servicemen. However later on they shifted to agriculture and with changing
time they have migrated to other forms of livelihoods. Duruas mostly worship Hindu gods.
 25

Chapter 3:

Tribal Communication and Communication

Technology
3.1: Tribal Communication

3.1.1: Tribal Communication Techniques

3.1.2: Tribal: Role of Development Communication

3.2: Communication Technology

3.2.1: New Media in brief

3.2.2: New Media: Form of Communication

3.2.3: Communication Technology and Tools

3.2.4: Reach of Communication Technology

3.3: Role of ICT in Development Communication

 26

Tribal Communication Techniques

There are certain special kinds of communication techniques which are only used by the tribal
people for communication among them. Some of these are also the traditional method of
communication which was used by society in earlier days. Some of the techniques are:

Pucker up:

Just because the only use whistling currently has is to exasperate the person working in the
next cubicle doesn’t mean it was always a source of annoyance. Long ago in places where the
terrain makes walking difficult, whistled languages closed the communication gap. Much like
spoken speech this type of communication had expressions and a “vocabulary” based on the
language commonly used in the area, and could easily convey a complex message over a long
distance.

Smoke Signals:

This is one of the oldest forms of communications. This unique form of getting a message
across, but the truth is ancient people from all over the world have used this method. Soldiers
guarding the great wall in ancient China used smoke signals to alert one another to the approach
of an enemy. While most people in recent times think of smoke signals as being bound to a
specific location where a large fire has been built these methods of carrying small combustible,
but long burning materials meant the signals could be sent at any time from anywhere. In fact,
some tribes used this mobility as part of the signal itself.

Singing:

Yodeling seems like a silly pastime to many in the west, but its initial purpose was
communicating over long distances and across deep expanses. In yodeling the voice register is
switched sharply and can be easily heard over long distances. This made communication possible
between mountain peaks or across wide expanses.

Communication in the peasant society is interpersonal through which society is closely

linked with its own ethos. The communication is devoid of any employment of technology for
dissemination of news and information in peasant society. In fact personal relations are heavily
relied on in traditional communication.

Traditional modes of communication are institutionalized in various rituals, Sanskars. art

forms, music, festivals, chaupal, leisure and so on. The communication is circumscribed by the
culture of society in which it operates with its local moorings.
 27

The hierarchies of a descriptive nature, certainly affect the traditional modes of

communication in a stratified society. In Indian society there are certain words, used only for
upper castes and the association of lower castes with words like Savama, could not be thought of.
Thus language serves as an instrument of authority and power over others. 12 In ancient India,
Sanskrit was spoken only by upper caste men (primarily Brahmins) while women and the lower
castes spoke Prakrit. This implies that the latter were deprived of Sanskrit literature and were
culturally dominated by men and upper castes.

In traditional society the mode of communication reflects on its social structure and the
ideologies which are suffused in it. This is so because the evolution of communication in
traditional society has been a part of historical processes in the past.

Worship of nature:-

All tribes are the worshipper of nature as they felt the presence of divinity in nature. Indeed,
this is important from religious grounds. They give more emphasis on three elements of nature.
They worship the soil as mother earth, sun as religious god and water as the life giver. The aim
and objectives of religious objects are as follows: (a) Prayer for blessing (b) System of improved
bread earning (c) Worshiping and remembering of forefathers (d) Welfare of the world (e)
Recreation (f) Environment protection and (g) Integration among communities. The religious
practices go on in tribal culture all over the year.

Song, festivals and dance :-

Other aspects that are associated with tribal culture are folk song, folk dance, fairs and
festivals which can not be ignored. They prefer to perform song and dance in groups rather than
pairs or singles. They play traditional tribal musical instruments such as drum, horn, tamak,
dunga dunga etc. The expression of the parts of the body like eye, head, waist and hand attract
others and especially at the time of dance which is parallel to the tune of musical instruments.
Usually these types of song and dance are organized at the time of fairs and festivals.n tribals
enjoy a rich and varied cultural heritage, the most powerful instance of this being in their music
and dance, which are as colourful as they are rhythmical. The cycle of life offers numerous
reasons to celebrate and is done so with vigour and grace, either in the privacy of the family
home or as a community activity .The changing seasons, religious customs and the traditional
rhythms of superstitious beliefs are strong incentives for creating a string of festivals to augment
their importance to the tribals The main festivals include Chaiti Parab, Pus Parab, Ghanta Parab,
Sim(bean) Parab, Aam (Mango)Parab, Bhairabi Jatra,Nuakhai, Dhan-Nua, Dialli, Mandai and
marriage ceremony. They put on their traditional dresses and ornaments well on these occasions
so as to sing and dance in groups. The Pus Parab and Chaiti Parab of almost all tribe of Koraput
region is recognized as main festivals and Dhemsa, the popular dance is regarded as the best in
the country.Tribal dance is characterized not only by its originality and spontaneity but also for
 28

its wide range of movements. Many parts of the body such as head, back, arms, feet, finger, etc.
are brought into play. Some of the tribal groups put on colourful dancing costumes during their
performance. Like dance, the songs sung by different tribal groups differ from one tribe to the
other. Among the tribes everyone is a musician and poet. When happily inspired, they can coin a
song then and there and sing it. Like any others, when they see things of beauty and meet
pleasantly, they exhibit this pleasure and happiness by composing Songs. One finds in these
songs humours, jokes, romance, satires, criticisms, acquisitions and anger. Though there is no
modernity and fineness, their ideas being natural, the compositions are good, inspiring and.
melodious. On the occasion of performing Pujas and observance of festivals the songs sung are
different. Such songs are adopted from the past so many years. These songs describe the history
of gods, the process of creation and some epic stories,

Dance (Dhemsa):-

A popular dance form like Dhemsa which is normally performed in every village of
Koraput is really fascinating. This is such a group dance which consists of both men and women
of all ages. They perform the group dance knitting fingers of one another and with the tunes of
the instruments. Although all tribes perform the Dhemsa only the Koya’s style and expression is
eye-catching. The Koya male put on the horns of the bison during the dance. The beautiful song,
dance, musical instruments associated with these performances by the tribals and their colourful
costumes and ornaments are the greatest attractions for the viewers.

Education:-

Education is one of the aspects of tribals development. Now they realize the importance of
education. The government through the department of Tribal and Rural Welfare have been trying
its best for the educational development of the tribals. Ashram Schools, Sevashram and Training
centres have been opened by the government for educating the tribal people. Stipends are granted
to tribal students for higher education.

Tribal paintings:

Odisha has a n age-old tradition of painting which stretches from the prehistoric rock
shelters to the temples and mathas of this century. Out of these the traditional painters, the tribal
painter, the folk and rock painters are of significance.

Rock Paintings: Painted rock shelters are situated in the densely wooded tracts of
western Odisha. The rock shelters at Ulapgarh and VIkram Khol in Sambalpur dist.
Manikmada and many other rock paintings offer the joy of discovering a primitive
culture, rare in the whole of Eastern India. painting carries reminiscence of Ajanta
murals. The rock paintings in these natural caves are coloured with the help of a twig of
a palm tree turned into a brush by hammering its fibrous end. The paintings differ from
 29

place to place. For example, in most rock shelters the paintings are mostly linear. But in
Manikanda, the paintings have a more pictorial quality and are of a greater variety and
range in their depiction of figures and nature.

Kandha Paintings:- Orissa has a rich tribal culture. The Sauras, the Kondhs and
the Santals decorate their houses with motifs of flowers, birds and geometrical designs.
The Saura paintings are intimately related to religious beliefs and drawn in order to
appease demigods' and spirits. On the occasion of animal sacrifices, the Sauras draw
petals on their walls. The themes of these paintings are usually dream sequences. A
medley of objects such as a comb or even a bicycle map figure in modern Saura
paintings. The Kondh wall paintings are generally in the form of geometrical designs.
Santals also paint their houses with figurative patterns.

Santhal and Saora Paintings:- Tribal paintings are like prayers that become part
of the offerings made to gods, ancestors and spirits. Members of the Saora tribe draw
ritualistic pictographs on the inner walls of their mud dwellings called Mans24'. The
icons are painted to preserve the abundance of the crops, avert disease, honour the dead,
promote fertility, honour the tutelary and so on. The spirit is then invoked and invited to
occupy the one dimensional painting which actually represents a house made for it.
Once captured therein it is propitiated with appropriate chantings. The icons are a
curious amalgamation of an early memory and contemporary impressions. Since they
are basically the expressions of an agricultural community there is an emphasis on
nature, the great outdoors and also on the cycle of ploughing, sowing and harvesting.
But as the outside world increasingly impinges on their lives, cars, chairs, tables and
planes have begun to appear innocently in the paintings, and are offered as vehicles for
their gods in hierarchical order.

Theatre crafts:- The Desiya Natya of tribal Odisha derives its distinctive style in
some part from Prahlada Natakams and Jatras of the Hindus. Its colourful costumes -
embroidered headdresses and painted masks which adorn the key actors, and the use of
imaginative props are a craft in themselves. Masks carved out of paper-mache and
sholapith; the weightless bark of a water plant, represent various gods, goddesses,
demons and animals.
 30

Tribal:Role of Development Communication

The large emphasis of such intervention packages has been towards assimilation in the so-called
mainstream without much regard and understanding of the needs of all the tribal communities,
their culture, social structure and rich heritage. The concept of development in this context is
narrow, since it is only based on government and has a wider connotation. In a society
characterized by several inequalities, mass poverty, illiteracy, under employment, mere
economic growth would not suffice.

Development intervention approaches in India over the past sixty years have been much “such
oriented one-way traffic. The approach has been restricted due to the top-down strategy, being
target oriented rather than people oriented, poor percolation due to bureaucratic practices at all
the stages of development, the non-involvement of people in selecting the right development
strategy and their ever-growing recipient attitude. However, it is an undeniable fact that the
development perspective must weigh the growth of the people. Michael Todaro considers that
“development is both a physical reality and a state of mind in which society has through some
combination of social, economic and institutional processes, secured the means for obtaining a
better life”.

The constitution of the independent India acknowledged centuries of social, economic and
educational deprivations suffered by scheduled Tribes and incorporated specific provisions to
protect them from discrimination as well as to facilitate their development. Micro level evidence
shows that interventions and initiations of women like mid day meal program, creation of self
help groups, developing partnership between schools and village communities, appointment of
local teachers have helped tribals to realize the importance of education, health and in
developing education and health of their children. But still a lot is to be done in this regard, since
their health and educational standards are far less than their other counterparts in the society.

Development Communication’ is a system of communication which is basically utilized for the

uplift of the human society in various fields of life. It helps us in improving our living standards.
This is because it teaches and makes us learn how to process information which we receive from
the mass media. It distributes such information among the masses for the benefit of the latter.
Famous Social scientist and communication expert Nora Quebral in 1975 defined the term
Development Communication as ‘ it is the art and science of human communication applied to a
speedy transformation of a country and the mass of its people
from poverty to a dynamic state of economic growth that makes possible greater social equality
and the larger fulfillment of the human potential’. In other words , the process of communication
applied for the overall improvement of the general human lifestyle of any nation.
 31

Current Status of Development Communication in India from ethical perspective with

special reference to Assam’, it is to be noted that we have to elucidate upon two main points i.e.
the current status of development reporting and secondly the current status of development
broadcasts or development programmes from ethical perspective.

Development Communication is an essential feature for the Indian situation as we are still a
developing nation with a large population. Now coming to the case of Assam, it is to be noted
that just like the other parts of North East India, Assam is also lagging behind in diverse areas of
development in comparison to the various states of the Mainstream India. So there is a genuine
need of development communication in Assam especially in the health and agriculture sector.
Assam predominantly being an agrarian state, needs development to a great extent in the
agriculture sector. And in this regard, all types of media such as modern mass media, folk and
traditional media, alternative media, community media as well as social media can play a big
part. But in this research paper, the focus has been basically confined to the role of modern mass
media and community media in development communication.

Even after 60 years of independence, Tribals in the State continue to offer. The budgetary
allocations never reach the poor and no change is noticed in their lifestyle. Successive
governments continued to ignore the welfare of Tribals and whatever promises they made got
restricted to either election manifesto or plans on paper. Their socio-economic condition still
remains the same with poor implementation of ST sub plans and diverting the funds meant for
their economic development.

Among all the tribes conformity to customs and norms and social integration continue to be
achieved through their traditional political organizations. The tributary institutions of social
control, such as family, kinship and public opinion continue to fulfill central social control
functions. The relevance of tribal political organization in the context of economic development
and social change continues to be there undiminished. Modern elite in tribal societies elicits
scant respect and has very little followings. And as the traditional leaders continue to wield
influence over their fellow tribesmen, it is worthwhile to take them into confidence in the context
of economic development and social change.

The 20th century has witnessed the immense impact of communication technologies, from
the spread of sound recording, motion pictures and radio as world-wide phenomena to the
emergence of television as a dominant influence in nearly every institution, to the explosion of
the Internet at the turn of the new century. The digital revolution is far from over, as new
inventions repeatedly challenge assumptions that were themselves formed only yesterday. This is
an exciting and critically important moment for communication scholars to contribute to
understanding, and shaping the parameters of our changing technological and academic
environment. Because it is communication with a social conscience, development
communication is heavily oriented towards man, that is, towards the human aspects of
 32

development. Even though it is primarily associated with rural development, it is also concerned
with urban, particularly suburban problems. It plays two broad roles. The first is a
transformational role through which it seeks social change in the direction of higher quality of
life and social justice. The second is a socialization role through which it strives to maintain
some of the established values of society that are consonant with development. In playing these
roles, development communication creates an enhancing atmosphere for the exchange of ideas
that produce a happy balance in social and economic advancement between physical output and
human relationships.

There is a significant difference between development communication and other types of

communication. Both theoretically and practically, there are many different types of applications
in the communication family. In this article I refer to four main types of communication:
advocacy communication, corporate communication, internal communication, and development
communication. Each has a different scope and requires specific knowledge and skills to be
performed effectively. Expertise in one area of communication is not sufficient to ensure results
if applied in another area.

Development communication initiatives can never be successful unless proper

communication research is conducted before deciding on the strategy. A communication
professional should not design a communication campaign or strategy without having all the
relevant data to inform his or her decision. If further research is needed to obtain relevant data, to
identify gaps, or to validate the project assumptions, the communication specialist must not
hesitate to make such a request to the project management. Even when a communication
specialist is called in the middle 7 of a project whose objectives appear straightforward and
clearly defined, specific communication research should be carried out if there are gaps in the
available data. Assumptions based on the experts‘ knowledge should always be triangulated with
other sources to ensure their overall validity. Given its interdisciplinary and cross-cutting nature,
communication research should ideally be carried out at the inception of any development
initiative, regardless of the sector or if a communication component would be needed at a later
stage.

Development communication is not exclusively about behavior change. The areas of

intervention and the applications of development communication extend beyond the traditional
notion of behavior change to include, among other things, probing socioeconomic and political
factors, identifying priorities, assessing risks and opportunities, empowering people,
strengthening institutions, and promoting social change within complex cultural and political
environments. That development communication is often associated with behavior change would
8 be ascribed to a number of factors, such as its application in health programs or its use in mass
media to persuade audiences to adopt certain practices. These kinds of interventions are among
the most visible, relying heavily on communication campaigns to change people‘s behaviors and
 33

to eliminate or reduce often fatal risks (for example, AIDS). The reality of development, though,
is complex and often requires broader changes than specific individual behaviors.
 34

New media in brief

New media refers to “those digital media that are interactive, incorporate two-way
communication and involve some form of computing. It is “very easily processed, stored,
transformed, retrieved, hyperlinked and, perhaps most radical of all, easily searched for and
accessed. A distinction between new media and old media is that old media is for the most part
mass media. In addition, each form of new media is highly interactive, while mass media is not.
Users of new media are active producers of content and information, whether sending an email
or using Internet collaboration tools.

We live in an age of rapid technological changes. Everyday we are flooded with information
from everywhere. The internet makes sure that we are not left behind in terms of information on
any front. In the process of news gathering and writing, the advent of computers along with the
phenomenon of the internet has introduced the concept of new media. Unlike the print media, the
new media does not rely merely on the written word for communication. Rather, it combines
words with a lot of visual elements, including animation, cartoons etc. Similarly, learning
through new media is like saying goodbye to all our age-old textbooks. In this new learning
phenomenon, learning can be fun. We can play computer games and through games, puzzles and
cartoons, also learn our history and maths lessons. This amazing combination of words with
visuals and cartoons is known as new media.

Technology only helps us to learn. Computers cannot replace books. But today, all over the
world people are realising that words alone cannot describe everything. That’s why learning is
better when words are combined with visuals, sound and even cartoons. Books give us only
words and illustrations, television gives us moving images and radio gives us sound. But what
the internet gives us is a combination of all these. We call it new media and we are using it
extensively to learn new things.

The internet is an interconnection of several thousands of computers of different types

belonging to various networks across the globe. Any computer user on the internet can contact
any other computer on the internet in any part of the world. The internet is an integral part of
new media.In the electronic media, the products are either a news channel or an entertainment
channel or a sports channel. For instance, Doordarshan has a news channel, Star Plus is an
entertainment channel and Discovery and Animal Planet are non-fiction channels.

In new media, the product is called a website. Every website has an address. To see a website
you need a computer. On every computer, there is an icon called internet explorer. One has to
click on it and a new screen opens up. On this, the individual types the address of the website
and it will open up for them. Then one can see and read whatever is posted on the website.
 35

New Media: The form of Communication

Whenever we communicate, we share information, ideas and even feelings. At times we may not
speak but the way we look at a person conveys a lot to that person.

Another important point is that any form of communication is not complete unless there is
feedback. It means whenever we talk to someone or someone reads what we have written, there
must be a response from the other person.

All forms of media, whether print or electronic, have feedback systems in place. Many of you
may have seen the page in a newspaper that contains the letter to the editor’. This is a feedback
mechanism used by the print media. Even television has a feedback system. Often we see, after a
program, the anchor advises the viewers to log on to their websites and post their opinions. You
may be watching many reality shows on television , especially music and dance competitions.
Audience feedback, in these shows, decides the fate of individual participants.

New media is known for its ability to involve the audience. This is known as Interactivity.
Hence, we can say that compared to other media forms, new media has the most evolved
feedback system in place.

Besides feedback, there are two other things that make new media very special. The first is the
way things are written. New media uses a narrative style of writing. A narrative is a story. All
of us like to read stories or listen to stories. If serious issues are written in the form of stories,
more people are likely to read them and learn from them. The other special feature of new media
is the use of multimedia. As mentioned earlier, whenever stories are supported by cartoons,
moving pictures, sound and music, it is called multimedia. The question is why do we do so
many things? What is the ultimate benefit of using new media? For one, the internet is very fast.
We don’t have to wait for one full day to read the day’s events in the newspaper. At 4 o’clock in
the evening, if we want to check out the latest cricket scores, we have to simply log on to the
internet and check a news website that will flash the information that we are interested in
knowing. Secondly we may not have time to read the entire newspaper, but will definitely have
some time to grasp the day’s happenings on a news website. That’s why the internet is so popular.

Manovich outlines eight possible concepts about new media in his essay “New Media from
Borges to HTML,” from the book The New Media Reader. These theoretical considerations build
upon new media as digital and cultural expressions.
 36

1.New media versus cyberculture. Cyberculture is the study of various social phenomena
associated with the Internet and other new forms of network communication, such as online
communities, cell phone usage in various communities and issues of gender and identity in
Internet usage. In contrast, new media is concerned with the new possibilities that network
communication technologies and all forms of computing present.
2.New media is using computer technology as a distribution platform. New media uses
digital computer technology for distribution. This definition must be revised every few years
as computing technology advances.
3.New media as digital data controlled by software. New media is digital data that can be
manipulated by software. This allows automation for media operations to produce multiple
versions of the same object. For instance, a picture can be altered or generated automatically
by running algorithms like sharpen, blue and colorize.
4.New media as the mix between existing cultural conventions and the conventions of
software. Hollywood films keep computers out of key creative decisions, yet computer
games use automation much more thoroughly, such as with 3-D character models and
storyline events. New media becomes a combination of old data and new data; old data relies
on visual reality and human reality, and new data relies on digital data.
5.New media as the aesthetics that accompany the early stage of every new modern
media and communication technology. Instead of looking at how digital computers
function as media creation, media distribution and telecommunication devices, the focus can
be on aesthetic techniques that accompany every new media and telecommunication
technology. For example, filmmakers in the mid-1990s used small, inexpensive digital
cameras for films characterized by a documentary style so that they could focus on the
authenticity of the actors’ performances and a more intimate approach.
6.New media as faster execution of algorithms previously executed manually or through
other technologies. Digital computing can be thought of as a way to massively speed up
manual techniques that already exist. Modern video games use an algorithm for linear
perspective that originated during the Renaissance in Italy; in a first-person shooter video
game, digital computers animate views and recalculate views for all objects in the frame
many times per second. The modern digital computer can be thought of as a faster calculator.
7.New media as the encoding of modernist avant-garde; new media as metamedia. The
1920s, or specifically 1915 to 1928, is more relevant to new media than any other time period
in history. Artists in this period invented a new set of visual and spatial languages and
communication techniques still used today. New media represents the new avant-garde,
which is no longer concerned with seeing or representing the world in new ways; rather, it
seeks to access and use previously accumulated media. Thus, new media is post-media or
metamedia.
 37

8.New media as articulation of similar ideas in post-WWII art and modern computing.
New media further develops ideas contained in the new art of the 1960s, including active
participation of the audience, artwork as a temporal process rather than a fixed object and
artwork as an open system. Also, “combinatorics” — creating images and/or objects by
altering a single parameter or creating all possible combinations of a small number of
elements — in 1960s computer art and minimalist art can be linked conceptually and
historically to new media. It illustrates that algorithms, which are an essential part of new
media, do not depend on technology but can be performed by humans.

What is Communication Technology?

If any individual communicates by using a written note, instant Messaging, or a cell

phone, then you are using communication technology. Communication technology is the
transfer of messages(information) among people and/or machines through the use of
technology. This processing of information can help people make decisions, solve problems,
and control machines.
Information and communication technology is subject to large network externalities; this
leads to vast possibilities and also quickly to lock-in situations. If it is intended to influence
the development of the industry (for instance by propagating an open standard), this must be
done within a narrow critical time window after which the industry is locked in to a point
where no public or private entity could alter the trajectory in any way significantly.

Communication technology tools

The tools of communication that use technology are known as communication technology tools.
It is basically known as Technological Communication tools. Some of the examples are:
I. Blogs
II. Bots
III. Chat rooms, Private & Group messaging
IV. Discussion Forums
 38

V. Email
VI. Internet
VII. Intranet/Social Intranet
VIII. Instant Messaging
IX. Phones
X. Social Networking
XI. Tweeting
XII. Video Conferencing

Blog: It is the Shortcut For the web Blog. The blogs are a good way to review a product service
and other thoughts and ideas by the blogger. It is prepared by professionals, content collectors,
competitors. It can both be a formal and informal way of conveying messages and ideas. It is the
easiest way of sharing content to mass medium.

Bots: A software based individual that interacts with users using chat mechanisms is known as
Bots. It is very handy when tackling projects and troubleshooting issues and is also helpful in
customer services, queries consultation.

Email: Emails are the electronic based mails that almost every individual uses on the internet. It
is the cheapest way an individual and an organisation can use to communicate both internally
and externally. It allows anyone to efficiently and effectively spread information.

Instant Messaging: It is commonly used for recreation purposes. It is generally utilized inside
business associations for worker representatives/workers, executives, Individuals among
themselves as well as other people. It likewise gives an interface to convey coordinates when
associated with the web or any system.

Phones: It utilizes innovation and has gotten increasingly versatile throughout the previous 10
years. Cell phones and different telephones have changed the manner in which individuals impart
by giving them capacity to make calls when they are on move.

Social Networking: Social Networking is the act of extending the quantity of one's the same old
thing or potentially social contacts by making associations through people, regularly through
web based life locales, for example, Facebook, Twitter, LinkedIn etc. Contingent upon the online
networking stage, individuals might have the option to contact some other part.
 39

Reach of Communication technology

There are more than 80 million internet users in India, who use the World Wide Web for
a number of activities, including writing emails, looking for jobs, online banking, trading stocks
and even searching for love on countless matrimonial sites. Scientists from India’s universities
and electricity companies are working to create access via power lines that will allow high-speed
connections that are faster than 256Kbps. This will make it much easier for internet users to
download movies or music, as well as to watch sport on television and other programs via live
streaming. Network enhancements will come from the development of increasingly powerful
computing devices, many of which are especially designed for network applications, as well as
from improvements in the methods for transmitting information from point to point and from the
development of new network configurations and new ways of linking networks together.Network
enhancements will come from the development of increasingly powerful computing devices,
many of which are especially designed for network applications, as well as from improvements
in the methods for transmitting information from point to point and from the development of new
network configurations and new ways of linking networks together. 6

But here arises a problem regarding technology. That is out Of the world’s 1.3 billion
people who live without access to power, a quarter — about 300 million — live in rural and
tribal India. Night-time satellite images of the sprawling subcontinent show the story: Vast
swaths of the country still lie in darkness. Due to lack of electricity the eyes of the village
peoples will get weak.How much electricity supply to our Indian states so how can the peoples
will study in the night, how can they be aware of the world without internet etc. Quality and
access is the major concern in rural schools as there are fewer committed teachers, lack of proper
textbooks and learning material in the schools. Though government schools exist, when
compared to private schools, quality is a major issue[4]. Due to lack of money they are not able
to send their child to private schools and hence depend upon government schools for education.
So our main motive is to fulfil the needs of these four problems in a village so that the problems
will reduce and the development will increase.So giving them the facilities would not be helpful
as resources invested at those places will not get the right owner who can suck the complete use
of them.

6
https://www.dw.com/en/bringing-internet-to-far-flung-areas-of-india/a-5417655
 40

Role of Communication Technology in Development

Communication:

New media technologies promise profound changes in how global citizens obtain news and
feature programming as well as how we communicate among ourselves and contribute to the
emerging DE-centralised, many-to-many media system. By becoming aware of How mass media
is controlled and biased by a few corporations, by choosing alternative media sources and by
taking action to publish news and original content with digital production tools, the internet and
independent media-vehicles- the public can create a true revolution in the control and
presentation of media.

Continued dramatic improvements in the computer memory and processing speed per
unit of cost led to steady increase in affordability and ubiquity of computers. Combined with
breakthroughs in storage technology, this made it increasingly possible and desirable to
capture and store information and content in digital form. This digitization, in turn, made it
easier to reuse, repurpose, manipulate and combine this content, anywhere at any time, for
the specific purposes of the user, through a variety of electronic means, often in
communication.

Simultaneously, without a moment to spare access to worldwide wellsprings of data and

information would give exceptional chances to handle the immovable issues that intensified and
propagated neediness, for example, infection, starvation and natural pressure. Medical clinics in
Africa that once in a while ever got a clinical or logical diary could now, many trusted, approach
to the full scope of worldwide logical and clinical research. Rural augmentation specialists could
now be outfitted with the best of what the world thought about plants, seeds, bothers, manures,
soil the executives. Strategy producers would be better ready to oversee common assets and react
to ecological issues, both in light of the fact that they could screen them better and since they
would have available to them the world‟s information about these difficulties. The ascent of
increasingly modern correspondence and data advancements, for example, satellites or the
Internet, has opened new skylines and openings. The capability of the new advancements has not
just expanded the infiltration of broad communications, for example, through satellites, however
it has additionally made new chances to improve correspondence at the nearby level using
innovations, for example, the Internet or cell phones. The foundation of "telecenters" in
provincial regions is spreading in numerous nations as an approach to help neighborhood
advancement in the social and financial measurement.

Correspondence advances are still viewed by some with doubt, most likely in light of the
fact that of past encounters when media were regularly used to "turn" contentions and force
change on individuals. The viability and estimation of ICTs and other new correspondence
 41

advances are controlled by the manner in which they are chosen and used. Regardless of whether
innovations are not the panacea for each correspondence issue, they are significant devices to
address explicit requirements,particularly when utilized in a manner perfect with and pertinent to
explicit neighborhood needs.

Regardless of whether the web, satellite, cell phones and remote PCs seem to comprise the
new outskirts in correspondence, there are some basic variables to consider before embracing
them. These variables can be separated in three fundamental classes: monetary, mechanical and
social. From a financial perspective, there are significant expenses related with the product
furthermore, the equipment segments of ICTs for people in creating nations, setting these items
outside the range of a great many people. On account of the web, there are moreover access and
network expenses to consider. Different costs identified with ICTs incorporate the foundation
and support of dependable framework for media communications. It ought to likewise be noticed
that the rush of freedom and privatization occurring right now numerous creating nations can be
a constraining element for underestimated segments of society.

From an innovative perspective, it is hard to guarantee the correct activity of such

advancements in places where there are no telephone or electric lines. Indeed, even where those
administrations are ensured, standard support and updates and issues of similarity among various
gauges, become significant issues. Specialized help is a need for people in more extravagant
nations and would be much increasingly important in nations where individuals are less
technology literate. In numerous nations, clients need essential preparation in PC use and before
that, education abilities to convey successfully on the Internet.

From a social perspective, there are likewise various limitations. The language wherein a
large portion of the data is accessible on the Internet can represent a hindrance. Moreover, given
the high lack of education pace of numerous regions of creating nations, numerous potential
clients are avoided from the beginning. In any event, when language obstructions are survived,
frequently social issues remain urgent in increasing key information and the required mood so as
to take full bit of leeway of the intensity of these advances.

Regardless of such deficiencies, ICT can do and assume a significant job being developed in
correspondence. Notwithstanding the broadly utilized data dispersal capacities, innovations, for
example, the Internet additionally can possibly bolster the level procedures of correspondence.

With their quantifiable and quick trade transmission streams of data and their limit with
respect to conquering reality, there is no uncertainty that ICTs can have a more grounded
advance than participatory procedures, which show up increasingly complex to oversee and
require longer and closer associations. Truth be told correspondence advances are progressively
 42

viable when utilized inside legitimate social structures and in forms that connect with partners in
the determination of the goals, key issues and proper channels. ICTs and media can
 43

Chapter 4:

Comparative Study of Research Papers

Paper 1: Ekka, Nancy(2013)- Impact of Modernisation

on Tribal Religious Customs and Traditions: A Case study of
Rourkela.

Paper 2: Mahananda, Ramakanta(2015)- Tribal

Communication Technology: Case study of Kondhs of Odisha.
 44

Paper 1: Ekka, Nancy(2013)- Impact of Modernisation on Tribal

Religious Customs and Traditions: A Case study of Rourkela.

The Paper is based on research done with 5 tribes of Odisha who stay in the district of Rourkela.
The Tribes have many things in common. Two of the tribes considered here are the Mundas and
Oraons who have their population in every section of Odisha. The procedures which were
attempted for achieving the quick national improvement were viewed as a significant strategy for
the expansion of inborn social orders into the national rules. In any case, the national expectation
to make clever elements like Rourkela Steel Plant for future development and income age for
development was undeniably more incentive than issues identifying with the prosperity of the
clans. Exercises, for example, building foundations, setting up ventures and developing dams for
water systems and force ventures for power and light included taking out and misuse of minerals
and backwoods assets. An enormous piece of these undertakings were started in the regions
where the tribals were settled. As these territories happened to be rich repositories of mineral and
backwoods assets. This prompted a normal conflict among tribals and bunches proclaiming
loyalty towards national intrigue.

Thus tribals were most seriously influenced by the utilization of land and timberland. Innate
territories in Rourkela have additionally observed a passage of individuals from outside looking
for business. These exercises have not just offered an opportunity to expand urbanization of
ancestral zones yet in addition have caused enormous scope movement of non-Tribals into
inborn regions denying the tribals of products of improvement in their own zones.

A total of 130 households were covered during this study which included all the four major tribes,
divided into groups of 25 to 30 households belonging to each tribe. The present study is based on
primary data, collected from each household, relating to various parameters of socio-cultural
status and the cultural practices of religious customs and traditions followed by tribals, with a
well-designed and structured questionnaire and face-to- face interview in this paper

. source: Secondary data

 45

source: Census 2001; Both figures showing percentage distribution of main source of livelihood among tribals

It is acceptable to realize that now inborn networks know about instruction and its worth yet
it is dismal that their own new age who are exceptionally taught young people are not
unreasonably much mindful of their own innate strict culture and practices. The young are the
gathering who can hold and partake during the time spent conveying forward their way of life,
yet it was not right now. The majority of them don't know even their inborn dialects; they don't
have the foggiest idea about the centrality and the significance of numerous strict practices, the
social functions and a lot more exercises rehearsed in their everyday life. While meeting the
youthful age, countless youth having a place with these significant communities of Jeypore
needed to get modernized with all out acknowledgment of the cutting edge culture, and right now
youth are overlooking their social and conventional qualities. A large portion of the youngsters
will not convey forward huge numbers of their social standards and customs. In the surge of
modernisation they are abandoning their own social legacy by adjusting and tolerating different
societies.

Time has changed and modernisation has made its influence visible on the society. People are
getting civilized day by day and their life-style is changing with time and so are the tribals of
Rourkela. Drastic changes are being perceived and the rich cultural heritage that once was the
identity of the tribes is no longer being followed.

The tribals used to worship nature, like trees and mother earth and they protected them, but today
there are very few persons left who follow these practices. Though the practice of sacrifice which
was once practiced by tribals, and which is no longer being practiced today, is a positive change
in itself. The practices of body inscriptions and tattoos have changed though the individual tribes
believe that it differentiates them from other tribes, but still their children do not follow these
practices.

Practices of washing hands of guests are still followed amongst the tribes and the dancing style is
still practised during ceremonies and celebrations and songs in their own languages are sung. All
these traditions provide certain uniqueness to each tribe. But, the use of traditional crafts and
equipment like pots, baskets, mats etc. are rarely used amongst the tribes.
 46

The practices of miracle and healing through herbs was a knowledge and ritual that was
passed on from their ancestors have almost come to an extinction, since most of them prefer
visiting a doctor and moving to a hospital in case of diseases. On being asked if they believed
that their children should have knowledge about their tribes,

The response was invariably on the affirmative, yet on the other hand, they also want them to be
educated and literate as they perceive that this will help them in their future and to be competent
enough to be a part of the society.

On being asked regarding the cultural activities like songs, dances, prayers, stories, etc. which
they follow during ceremonies of celebration and sorrow, their answer to this was that during
celebratory ceremonies like marriages, births and religious festivals, all cultural activities like
songs, dances, prayers, stories etc. are practiced, but during sorrowful occasions like death, they
mostly preferred only prayers and songs.

It is concluded from the examination attempted that because of the track of modernisation in
these ancestral towns, the tribals' observations, considerations, nourishment propensities, day by
day ways of life, dresses, celebrations, rule and customs, the eco-accommodating, nature related
culture and so forth., are altogether weakening because of the effect of modernisation. As
modernisation has entered the ancestral way of life, there is an opportunity to lose the customs
and inborn uniqueness over the long haul, in the evolving situation. Ancestral strict traditions and
conventions are plainly not effectively perceptible as Islam and Buddhism or some other religion,
(Chaudhuri, 1965). However simultaneously it isn't so natural to recognize inborn culture and
specific kinds of well known Hindu practices. Hinduism is obviously not by any means the only
ideological power which has achieved central changes in ancestral societies, as Christian
ministers have likewise been dynamic in innate regions, with the outcome that a lion's share of
the tribals have been changed over to Christianity. The discussion here lies in how these
indigenous individuals will converge with the homogenous Indian culture, the purported
propelled Indian culture with its etymological strict and standing division which has been rarely
uniform.

It has never been characterized where these indigenous gatherings can be incorporated. The
tribals continually face injury and weight from the general public that they live in. To be a piece
of the general public has brought about semantic osmosis and numerous inborn networks have
lost their unique tongues and today talk one of the principle dialects of India. As of late
instruction and related mindfulness has unquestionably helped the tribals from being genuinely
misused by the tribals. It is confusing that in numerous regions the tribals are presented to the
impact of the general public they will be misused, consequently to be equipped and to be a piece
of the general public the tribals have experienced a significant change in their way of life.
Therefore, modernisation apparently is gradually murdering the ancestral life as it is
 47

progressively breaking down the social assets of the innate network. The inquiry here that must
be replied by us as a piece of the general public seems to be, regardless of whether such
modernisation is to be acknowledged or to be disavowed.
 48

Paper2: Mahananda, Ramakanta(2015)

Tribal Communication Technology: Case study of Kondhs of

Odisha.

Inborn correspondence innovation carries with it new attributes which regularly grow the
skylines of data spread among the individuals of various clans. The same number of parts of
India receive the new advances of the data, the ancestral individuals of Odisha don't too
promptly forsake their old and customary specialized techniques, which are not really enemies of
theatricals to the Internet. As energizing as the new advancements may be, they don't generally
predict positive turns of events. Odisha's involvement with embracing data and ancestral
correspondence innovations is informational. Throughout the years, we have attempted a few
strategies for innovation, move, appropriation, duplicating and slipping up from the old and
customary advancements.

Today, it is hard to pinpoint how far we have gone in our drive to turn into a mechanically
evolved state. Whatever stage and sort of innovation that is conceivable in the entire nation, (the
web comprehensive) is given in Odisha. The inquiry truly is how broad and what effect have
these advancements on the inborn individuals and their economy? Unquestionably our
correspondence segment isn't as facilitated and created as it ought to be. Yet, before evaporating
the old and conventional correspondence advancements of it is presently time to talk about and
use it at the period of scarcity to keep up a solid society.

Communication is all inclusive to every single person and is central to our lives. It manages
and shapes all human conduct. Dreaming, conversing with somebody, contending in a
conversation, talking in an open gathering, taking an interest in a customary social capacity,
escape from a mammoth, caution to the individuals at time of peril, perusing of a paper, sitting in
front of the TV, perusing web and so on are various types of correspondence that we are Tribal
Communication Technology:

A Case Study of Kondhs of Kandhamal of Odisha Ramakanta Mahananda occupied

consistently. It implies we are continually trading our contemplations, thoughts and movements
with some random person either to fulfill our physical, passionate or different necessities or to
complete work. Clearly correspondence is a basic piece of one's life. Truth be told, society can't
get by without correspondence.

Better than Shouting :

Communication starts with language, the unmistakable capacity which has made
conceivable the advancement of human culture. With language any message, regardless of how
 49

unpredictable, can be passed on between individuals over a restricted separation - inside a room
or spot of get together, or over a short open space. In present day times 'town messengers' hold a
yearly challenge to find which of them can yell an intelligible message over the best separation.
The world record is under 100 meters. As of now, at that short range, an increasingly useful
option is to run with the message. The creation of composing and specifically of alphabetic
composing denoted an achievement in social turn of events. It furnished mankind with other
methods for correspondence that truly engraved in stone the verbally expressed word.
Correspondence could now traverse both reality. Space, since composing could be sent starting
with one spot then onto the next. Time, since composing could safeguard the words for a long
time into the future. Since the craft of composing was found, almost every type of composing
material has been utilized. Some were expected to guarantee constancy while others were
straightforward and modest however transitory. From the wax scratch pad of the school kid to
the terrific engravings on landmarks, nearly all that we think about relics is gotten from
compositions, for example, those composed of creatures, vegetables and minerals.

Every place there is a history of first settlers like that of classification. One region turned
into a position of residences when a gathering of individuals moved from one spot to some
different place and settled down for all time. As indicated by the Kondhs of Kandhamal locale,
when open a period they were living on the highest point of the slope. They moved from the
highest point of the close by slope because of looking through another spot where they have a
sound existence. The drop of the found Kondh residents of the zone were Kutia Kondhs, who
were living in the thick woods; yet now they are recognizing themselves as Adivasi or Kondh.
Another explanation of relocation is because of neediness and their country is pronounced as
hold woodland by the Forest Department.

The ranchers at present, are urged to utilize logical strategies for horticultural activities and
attempting to create more harvests from a similar piece of land. Rural creation relies on
convenient downpour, a satisfactory water the executives soil preservation, present day
innovation and so forth. The way of life of the individuals of Nuagaon is agribusiness based.
During the collecting season the entire town is dynamic as even the school going kids give
assistance in the gathering of harvests to their relatives. The pattern of horticulture among the
Kondh isn't not quite the same as that of other neighboring networks. It begins with the handling
of the field during the long stretch of MayJune not long before the appearance of a south-west
rainstorm. Planting is typically done during June while transplantation of paddy gets essential at
any rate once, during August and afterward they keep cautious watch on the field till the collect
in the month of November-December. They develop oil seeds and vegetables after the gathering
paddy. Hardly any individuals take up summer yields and summer paddy.
 50

Along these lines right now, endeavor has been made for an ethnographic investigation of
the Kondhs with unique reference to their settlement and subsistence strategies.The agrarian
exercises of the Kondhs of Kandhamal have significant ramifications for subsistence of Neolithic
societies. What is important presently is to make a top to bottom investigation of subsistence
techniques of other ethnic groups in different pieces of Odisha for understanding the subsistence
techniques of Pre-noteworthy societies of Odisha.Every place there is a history of first settlers
like that of classification. One region turned into a position of residences when a gathering of
individuals moved from one spot to some different place and settled down for all time. As
indicated by the Kondhs of Kandhamal locale, when open a period they were living on the
highest point of the slope. They moved from the highest point of the close by slope because of
looking through another spot where they have a sound existence. The drop of the found Kondh
residents of the zone were Kutia Kondhs, who were living in the thick woods; yet now they are
recognizing themselves as Adivasi or Kondh. Another explanation of relocation is because of
neediness and their country is pronounced as hold woodland by the Forest Department.
 51

Chapter 5:

Problems and Gap

5.1: Reasons of the Gap between the two communities

5.2: Steps to stand for them

 52

Reasons of the Gap between the two communities

The progressions have been estimated by their working populace, differing occupations,
education, pay and mechanical development. Regardless of the reality, a significant number
of the innate and conventional components have been proceeding in their way of life and
society, primarily in their non-material culture.

The significant changes and congruities which have occurred under the effect of
urbanization of the tribals are being summarized.

I. Social Structure

(i) Family Structure

Traditionally the sub rural tribal communities follow a nuclear family system. But
the section of the same who migrated in the plains of Cachar district, i.e The Sauras
adopted a joint family system as a highly situated tribal community of this region. But
presently the joint family system could not retain its preponderance among the Sauras
population in Jeypore town and most of the families (72.97%) are nuclear type. Because
most of the Sauras migrated individually to the in Jeypore and other towns of the district
in search of jobs or education and after

seeking those they got married and remain in the town as a nuclear family. Besides, in
some cases (27.03%) the people are living jointly with their parents, married sons, grand
children or other secondary or tertiary kins. The traditional patriarchal family system
remains more or less the same in both the tribal and sub rural Bagata communities. As all the
Bagata females in the town are educated they take part in all the family matters and the
husbands take any final decision after consulting their wives.Thus, small sized nuclear
family is the dominant feature taking place among the Bagata in the town because of joint
effects of education and urbanization.

(ii) Inheritance of Property:

In their customary law of inheritance, daughters have exclusive rights over mothers'
property like cloths, ornaments and utensils whereas sons have exclusive rights over
paternal property like land, house and cash. In absence of a daughter and a son all the
movable and immovable properties are inherited by the nearest female and male
relatives respectively.

But the urban Sauras do not follow the custom. The parents may give their movable or
immovable property to any one of the sons and daughters or may distribute equally among
 53

them as is in practice among the people in the town. Even in absence of a daughter and a son,
they inherit the properties to daughter-in-law and son-in-law respectively instead of any
other relative. Thus, the custom of inheritance is changing among the Bagatas in the town
under the society influence,

(iii) Marriage:

Traditionally monogamy is practised in the Bagata and the Saura tribe settled in the
rural and urban areas of Koraput district. Remarriage is permissible only after death or
divorce of one's spouse. Generally, in the rural areas, the parents get their daughters
married at the age of 18-20 years. In the selection of a bride the guardians of the groom
pay more attention to beauty as well as weaving skills of the bride. But in the sub rural
most of the parents arrange their daughters' marriages at the age of 20 years onwards .
The grooms' families are giving more importance to the bride's education and her family
status rather than her beauty and weaving skills. The community traditionally prefers
negotiated marriage. Most of the marriages (77.97%) of the Bagatas in the town have
taken place through negotiations. Besides, the community has recognized a few inter-
community marriages (5.04%) after the deviants have undergone some sort of punitive
action (Dandi) imposed by the committee of the Bagata or the Saura Samaj. Thus, in the
given context of modernization and heterogeneity in the rural & urban setup the
individual choices are being accommodated along with the continuing community
preference for traditional negotiated marriage. However, they gladly accept only the
cases of love marriage whereas they accept inter-community marriages reluctantly, out
of the fear that excommunication of those who violate the rule of tribe endogamy will
ultimately result into depopulation of their community. Therefore, the Dandi is used to
discourage and to check the growth of inter-community marriages so as to retain their
social identity in the midst of urbanization and modernization.

(iv) Clan System:

The Bagatas in the township have a double clan system till date. They strictly observe the
clan exogamy rule in marriage and the deviants of this rule are excommunicated. However, some
of the young Bagatas have married outside the tribe and have violated the rule of tribe endogamy.
It posed some problems for their social structure. Since the non-tribals do not have any matri-
clan, it becomes problematic in marriage of the offspring born out of inter-community marriages
which are unavoidable in the urban setting. Therefore, out of the fear of depopulation the
Barman community has decided to allocate a new matri-clan for a non-Bagata girl who married a
Bagata boy for the female descendents of the outgoing women instead of excommunicating them.
Thus, alongwith continuity of the clan structure certain changes have been introduced in the form
of accommodation of new clans and permissiveness in respect of tribe endogamy.
 54

(v) Kinship behaviour and terminology:

In their kinship behaviour the rural Sauras are continuing their customary usages of
avoidance, joking and deference. Yet, some changes are obviously taking place among the
educated ones. In the rural areas, the daughter in-law must veil in front of parents-in-law and
husband's elder brother. While interacting they do not touch each other; do not sit together
and speak to each other impersonally by using signs as much as possible. But the tribal
Bagatas are more open and direct in conversations. The daughter-in-law treats her parents-
in-law like her own parents, but with formal regards. She treats her husband's elder brother
as her own elder brother but obviously she maintains a distance in her interaction with him.
But, those women whose parents -inlaw and husband's elder brother are living in villages
they do veil themselves and follow all customary usages in interaction whenever they visit
their respective villages. Like the rural Bagata community the joking usages are prevailing
among the Tribal Sauras between husband's younger brother and his elder brother's wife and
between grandparents and grandchildren along with reciprocal relationship of love and
respect. Besides, the usages of deference exhibit more or less similarity in both rural and
urban settings of the Bagatas. Yet, a little egalitarianism is perceived because of economic
independence of sons in the grown up stage and some working women (48.50%) in the town.

(vi) Social Stratification:

As in the rural Barman community the urban Bagatas also have caste distinctions
introduced by the royal decree in the past. But in both the settings the caste distinctions are
effective in marriage negotiation only. Though the feeling of class consciousness is not discerned
among the Tribal Sauras as they are all agriculturalists of more or less similar economy, yet class
consciousness surfaces among the rural Bagatas on certain occasions because of occupational
diversification and educational improvement. Generally, the consciousness is perceived at the
time of marriage negotiations wherein education and income are considered measures of status
among the rural Bagatas. Besides, a section of the Bagata women who belong to a specific group
is continuing to be considered an inferior caste among the community in the town and no
marriage relation is possible with them. Thus, the caste consciousness shows the continuity of
tradition whereas the emerging class consciousness signifies a new basis of inequality gaining
ground in the rural Bagatas.

II. Economic Structure:

The tribal Sauras are settled agriculturalists and poultry farming, sericulture, brewing
and weaving are practised by womenfolk as subsidiary occupations in their families. Their
expenditure and consumption patterns are mostly based on their incomes. But, the Bagatas in
the town represent a changed picture in their economic life in comparison to the Tribal
sauras. The traditional occupation has been replaced by non-agricultural occupations in the
urban setting. The two fifths of the population are working in Government and private
 55

sectors and the rest are non-workers. Most of the workers are engaged as clerks, peons and
mechanics; a significant proportion is of teachers and a very small fraction consists of
engineers, doctors, policemen, security and army personals. Half the non-workers are
students and one fourth are housewives. Now-a-days, nearly one fourth Barman females are
working in different government and private sectors . Yet, the size of male working
population is double the female working population.

III. The Power Structure:

Like the people of Saura community the rural Bagatas have a traditional organization.
The Bagata in the town are guided by the executive body of their Samaj which consists of
headman,two assistant headman and six area-in-charge. But the position of assistant
headman has been dropped in the rural setting as there are only few Tribal Bagata
households and the two assistants are sufficient in the town. In both the tribal and urban
settings the executive body is empowered to take all social, cultural and religious decisions
for the community and anyone who defies the decisions is excommunicated. But, now-a-
days, the executive body has become a bit permissive in the matter of tribe exogamy only.
Because such instances are happening and ex-communication of the deviants may lead to
depopulation of their society the executive body, has decided to accept the deviants by using
the Dandi (atonement or performing of purificatory rites along with some monetary penalty
decided by the body) to redeem the situation. But, the body never pardoned the deviants of
clan exogamy rule. Though both the rural and urban Barman communities are bearing their
traditional power structure, yet, today, this system remains not as active as in the pre-
independence period. On the whole, the rural Bagatas are continuing their traditional power
structure by making a few changes such as dropping of Headmans and permissiveness in the
matter of tribe exogamy.

Language: Regarding language some changes have taken place in course of time after a
section of the Headman came down to the plains of Cachar. Barmans speak slightly different
languages varying in intonations, pronunciation and accent. Even words are spelt differently. For
instance, the Dimasa T sound is often transformed into 'U', and Jilik (female clan) is pronounced
as Julu, In Hill Dimasa the words Ning (you), Hagic (hill), Khem (flower), etc. turn into
Nung{ you), Hague (hill) and Khem (flower) for the same meaning. This is because of living
amidst the Sylheti Bengali people for a long time. So, some changes have definitely taken place
in their dialect which make them 324 different from the Hill Sauras. Due to expansion of
education, employment, improved mass media, acculturation, urbanization and modernization,
now-a-days, almost all the Bagatas in the town speak Odia and Desia other than their mother
tongue. The young generation can speak English and Hindi a little and is passing through
multilingualization.
 56

Steps taken & policies by Govt.

Steps by Colonial Govt.

● Verrier Elwin (1959) says that keeping the sketchy general background of the tribes in
mind we may now pass on to the tribal policies of the colonial Government and the
present Independent Government, the exposition of which would automatically justify the
usefulness of assigning safeguards to the Scheduled Tribes by the National Government.
The approaches of these two administrative machineries show a striking difference in
terms of deep motivational principles while the approach adopted by the British
Government was fundamentally political being purely guided by their colonial interest,
the present Government’s attitude prompted by a desire of welfare and an
uncompromising concern for the socio-economic upliftment of our tribal folk. This basic
difference in attitudes is, thus, an important point to note which should not be lost sight of
while assessing the nature of their respective policies towards our tribal brethren.

Steps Taken Post-Independence:

● Dube (1982) writes that one can very well understand in the context as to why the British
Government’s creating the “excluded” and partially excluded” areas and giving separate
political representation to the tribes had invited criticism of the Nationalists who “viewed
both these measure as part of a diabolic conspiracy to create a new separatist minority”.
However, with the independence of the country, this policy had undergone a qualitative
change. Contrasted with the British policy, the present Government of India’s foremost
concern which molded its policy was securing the welfare and socio-economic upliftment
of the tribal people. The polity imbued with a high sense of respect for the tribal cultures
and traditions is stoutly opposed to any kind of interference by outside agencies .
● Singh K.S. (1995) writes that the tribals in India were not treated with the cruelty and
harshness they were subjected to in the USA and Australia. The tribals were exterminated
in the New World and Australia destroying their civilization and culture. There were no
bloody encounters in India with the exception of Aberden in the Andaman Islands where
5000 tribals were known down by British gun in 1858. India also did not have the social
isolation policy of reservations for the tribals as was the case in America where the tribals
(Red Indians) were restricted to the reserved areas.

Singh P.K. (1995) writes in an article, In Gujarat, the Lift Irrigation Co-operative mobilized the
tribals, and gave them technical know-how. The production increased from 4/5 quintal/acre to
15/18 Quintile acre (Baril, 1991). Mizoram Mulling Collective Farming Society organized
 57

landless tribal labourers and trained them in improved agricultural practices. They now own
assets worth about rupees five lakhs in land, livestock, agricultural implements etc. In Udaipur,
Rajasthan, the Watershed Resource Society aided by technical know-how has increased by per
capita income from Rupees 598 to Rupees 1735.

● A report of Women and Child Development Department (1995)

discloses the successful experiments of participation of trials. In Bankura (West Bengal) about
2000 tribal women procured 450 areas of wasteland from the men of their community and raised
one million Arjun and Asan trees to rear Tasar silk cocoons. They have earned assured income of
about five six months. Their Nari Bikash Sangha is a Federation which interacts with the
Government functionaries and has ties with women Panchayat members.

● Role of NGOs

The Non-Government Organizations (NGOs) have emerged as friends of the tribals and the
dalits in India. The Government of India has also acknowledged the important role of NGOs. But,
the Government wants the NGOs as their agents and not as their critics. In fact the State and
Central governments have been patronizing the sarkari and darbari NGOs Dr. B.D. Sharma, a
former Commissioner of Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes and a former Vice-Chancellor
of NEHU was stripped and paraded in the streets of Jagdalpur because he was protesting against
the establishment of a steel factory on tribal lands which he thought was against the interests of
the tribals.

● Adivasi Mela, Bhubaneswar (26 January–9 February)

The Odisha state-level Annual Adivasi Exhibition or Adivasi Mela kicks off on 26 January at the
Adivasi Exhibition Ground in Bhubaneswar. The tribal fair is held across two weeks and show-
cases the art and craft of various tribal communities, forest produce, tribal products and
handicrafts. The mela also has cultural programmes in the evening.

● Swarna Jayanti Gram Swarojgaar Yojna: It is an alternative stated before the Self
help Group programme with the exclusive objective of establishing a large number of
micro enterprises in the rural area as building upon the potential of the rural poor. Funds
required under SGSY are being shared by the central govt. And State governments in the
ratio do 75:25. The SGSY is being implemented by the DRDAs through the panchayat
samities.
● Schemes by NABARD: NABARD being an apex level financial institution occupies a
unique place with a mandate to promote integrated rural development. Since February
 58

1992 it has successfully developed and operationalised the concept of linking SHGs with
banks as a supplementary mechanism of saving and credit where a large number of
NGOs and Banks are participating. In addition, NABARD also supports various other
credit dealing innovations that are being experimented in different parts of the country,
such as: Gramin bank Replication, NGO networking, SHG federation credit unions etc.
● Small industries Development Bank of India(SIDBI) as a self help group Promoting
Institution: Small Industries development Bank of India introduced the Micro Credit
Scheme(MCS) in 1994. Assistance is extended under this programme through, yielded
satisfactory results. This has encouraged SIDBI to meet the challenge by taking proactive
steps to enhance the flow of institutional funds to this sector. Keeping in view the
tremendous potential of reaching out to millions of rural entrepreneurs, a further impetus
in development of micro-credit is essential at this stage.

● Special Central Assistance to Tribal Sub-Scheme (SCA to TSS)

Special Central Assistance to Tribal Sub-Scheme (SCA to TSS)is 100% grant from Government
of India (since 1977-78). It is charged to Consolidated Fund of India (except grants for North
Eastern States, a voted item) and is an additive to State Plan funds and efforts for Tribal
Development. This grant is utilized for economic development of Integrated Tribal Development
Project (ITDP), Integrated Tribal Development Agency (ITDA), Modified Area Development
Approach (MADA), Clusters, Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Groups (PVTGs) and dispersed
tribal population. SCA to TSS covers 23 States: Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Bihar, Chhattisgarh,
Goa, Gujarat, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu & Kashmir, Jharkhand, Karnataka, Kerala, Madhya
Pradesh, Maharashtra, Manipur, Odisha, Rajasthan, Sikkim, Tamil Nadu, Telangana, Tripura,
Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal.

● Grants-in-aid under Article 275(1) of the Constitution:

Grants-in-aid under Proviso to Article 275(1) of Constitution of India is 100% annual grant from
Government of India to States. It is charged to Consolidated Fund of India (except grants for NE
States, a voted item) and is an additive to State Plan funds and efforts for Tribal Development.
Grant is provided to 27 States, namely, Andhra Pradesh, Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Bihar,
Chhattisgarh, Goa, Gujarat, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu & Kashmir, Jharkhand, Karnataka,
Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Manipur, Maharashtra, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, Odisha,
Rajasthan, Sikkim, Tamil Nadu, Telangana, Tripura, Uttar Pradesh, Uttarakhand and West
Bengal. Funds are utilised for the socio economic development of ITDA, MADA, Clusters and
for PVTGs.

● Institutional Support for Development & Marketing of Tribal Products / Produce

(Central Sector Scheme)
 59

Under the scheme, Grants-in-aid are released to State Tribal Development Cooperative
Corporations (STDCCs) and Tribal Cooperative Marketing Development Federation of India Ltd.
(TRIFED) which is a multi-State Cooperative under the Ministry of Tribal Affairs (MoTA). The
objective of the Scheme is to create institutions for the Scheduled Tribes to support marketing
and development of activities they depend on for their livelihood. These are sought to be
achieved by specific measures like (i) market intervention; (ii) training and skill up-gradation of
tribal Artisans, Craftsmen, Minor Forest Produce (MFP) gatherers etc.; (iii) R&D/IPR activity;
and (iv) Supply chain infrastructure development.

● PRE-MATRIC SCHOLARSHIPS TO ST STUDENTS (Class IX and X)

Applicable to students who are studying in Classes IX–X. Parental income from all sources
should be less than Rs.2.00 lakhs per annum, which is proposed to be revised to Rs.2.50 lakhs
per annum.Scholarships are paid @ Rs.150/- per month for Day Scholars and @Rs.350/- per
month for Hostellers, for a period of 10 months in a year. This is proposed to be revised from
existing Rs.150/- to Rs.225/- p.m. for Day Scholars, and from Rs.350/- to Rs.525/- p.m. for
Hostellers.Central assistance in the share of 75:25 (90:10 for NER and Hilly States) to State
Governments/UT Administrations is available from the Government of India.Scholarship is
distributed through the State Government/UT Administration.

● POST MATRIC SCHOLARSHIPS TO ST Students (Class XI and above):

Applicable to students who are studying in any recognized course from a recognized institution
for which qualification is Matriculation/Class X or above. Parental income from all sources
should be less than Rs.2.50 lakhs per annum. Compulsory fees charged by educational
institutions are reimbursed subject to the limit fixed by the concerned State Fee fixation
committee and scholarship amount of Rs.230 to Rs.1200 per month, depending upon the course
of study is paid.Central assistance in the share of 75:25 (90:10 for NER and Hilly States) to State
Governments/UT Administrations is available from the Government of India. Scholarship is
distributed through the State Government/UT Administration.

● SCHOLARSHIP FOR HIGHER EDUCATION (earlier known as Top Class

Education) For ST students.

Scholarship is given to ST students for pursuing studies in prescribed courses in any of the
246 institutes of excellence across the country like IITs, AIIMS, IIMs, NIITs, etc. identified
by the Ministry. Total number of scholarships is 1000 per year. Family income from all
sources does not exceed Rs.6.00 lakhs per annum. Scholarship amount includes tuition fees,
living expenses and allowances for books and computers.

● Scheme of Grant-in-aid to voluntary organizations working for the welfare of

Scheduled Tribes
 60

● The Scheme was launched in 1953-54 and was last revised w.e.f. 1stApril 2008. The
prime objective of the scheme is to enhance the reach of welfare schemes of Government
and fill the gaps in service deficient tribal areas, in the sectors such as education, health,
drinking water, agro-horticultural productivity, social security net etc. through the efforts
of voluntary organizations, and to provide favourable environment for socio-economic
upliftment and overall development of the Scheduled Tribes (STs). Any other innovative
activity having direct positive impact on the socio-economic development or livelihood
generation of STs may also be considered through voluntary efforts. The scheme is the
Central Sector Scheme. The grants are provided to the non-governmental organizations
on application, in a prescribed format, duly recommended by the multidisciplinary State
Level Committee of the concerned State Government / UT Administration. Funds are
generally provided to the extent of 90% by the Government. The voluntary organization
is expected to bear the remaining 10% balance from its own resources.

● Vocational Training in Tribal Areas

The main aim of the Scheme is to develop the skills of the ST youth for a variety of jobs as well
as self employment and to improve their socio-economic condition by enhancing their income.
The scheme covers all the State and Union Territories. lt is not an area-specific scheme, the
condition being that free vocational training facilities are extended only to tribal youth. 100%
grants under the scheme are provided to the State, Union Territories and other Associations
implementing the Scheme. Each Vocational Training Centre (VTC) under the Scheme may cater
to 5 vocational courses in traditional skills depending upon the employment potential of the area.
Keeping in view the limited potential of even skilled persons in interior areas, each ST boy/girl is
trained in two trades of his/her choice, the course in each trade being for a duration of three
months. Each trainee is to be attached at the end of six months to a master craftsman in a semi
urban/urban area for a period of six months, to learn his/her skills by practical experience. The
scheme has been revised with effect from 1.4.2009 to provide enhanced financial norms and to
ensure linkages of vocational courses with recognized certificate/diploma through
affiliation/accreditation of courses and institutions under Modular Employable Skills and
Craftsman Training Scheme by National Council of VocationalTraining of Ministry of Labour
and Employment

● Support to Tribal Research Institutes (TRIs) and Tribal Festivals, Research Information
and Mass Education;

In the above schemes, the focus of the Ministry is to preserve and promote tribal culture and
dissemination of information. To preserve tribal art and culture, financial assistance is provided
to TRI’s to carry out various activities to preserve and promote tribal culture and heritage across
the country through research and documentation, maintenance and preservation of art & artefacts,
 61

setting up of tribal museum, exchange visits for the tribals to other parts of the State, organizing
tribal festivals etc. Funding under this Scheme is 100% grant-in-aid by the Ministry of Tribal
Affairs to the TRIs on need basis with the approval of the APEX Committee. TRIs would be
responsible to prepare proposals and detailed action plans for the year along with budgetary
requirements and submit it to the Ministry through the State Tribal Welfare Department. This
information was given by the Union Minister of State for Tribal Affairs Shri. Jaswantsinh
Bhabhor in Lok Sabha today .

● Young women from Tribal Areas to receive Digital Skills Training

These days, tribal societies are on the road to modernity and development.Eklavya Model
Residential Schools (EMRSs): In the context of the trend of establishing quality residential
schools for the promotion of education in all areas and habitations in the country, the Eklavya
Model Residential Schools (EMRS) for ST students take their place among the Jawahar
Navodaya Vidyalaya, the Kasturba Gandhi Balika Vidyalaya and the Kendriya Vidyalayas. The
students here can learn well about the new modern communication technologies and the tools.
That will help in growing a new generation who can take proper advantage of the resources
provided to tribals and they can volunteer to work for their own community.

Guideline for Support to Tribal research Institutes: The basic objective of the scheme is to
strengthen the Tribal Research Institutes (TRIs) in their infrastructural needs, Research &
documentation activities and Training & Capacity Building programmes etc.

● Scheme of Grant in Aid to Voluntary Organizations working for welfare of STs:The

prime objective of the scheme is to enhance the reach of welfare schemes of Government
and fill the gaps in service deficient tribal areas, in the sectors such as education, health,
drinking water, agro-horticultural productivity, social security etc. through the efforts of
voluntary organizations, and to provide an environment for socioeconomic upliftment
and overall development of the Scheduled Tribes (STs). Any other innovative activity
having direct impact on the socio-economic development or livelihood generation of STs
may also be considered through voluntary efforts.7

7
https://tribal.nic.in/Schemes.aspx
 62

Chapter 6:

Conclusion and Suggestions

 63

Conclusion

The tribal culture is so much liberal and simple. A deep observation, study and analysis
regarding tribal culture will clarify our understanding. On account of these above reasons the
tribals of these parts are considered as simple, truthful and freedom – oriented. Although
modernization and the process of globalization has already entered into the hills of Koraput
region changing their lifestyle; yet their costumes, tradition associated with cultural history will
remain evergreen in the world.

The problem of the tribal areas is to make the people feel that they have perfect freedom
to live their own lives and to develop according to their wishes and genius. India to them
should signify not only a protecting force but a liberating one. Any conception that India is
ruling them and that they are ruled, that customs and habits with which they are unfamiliar
are going to be imposed upon them will alienate them from the administration.

Effect of Modernisation on the Religious Customs and Traditions of the Tribals in Jeypore

Modernisation is the require of the time, and almost all of us would agree to this, but
modernisation at the cost of the rich cultural heritage which has been passing on from ages by
tribal ancestors would absolutely is not the answer to the above question, To a certain extent
modernizing their thoughts and accepting the changes would be helpful to the tribal society. The
tribals in Koraput have undergone a remarkable change in their religious practices and customs
with the changing time, not only to be a part of the modernized world but to be acceptable to the
society as well.

Linguistic Changes

Jeypore is located in the Southern tip of Odisha which is situated very close to the state of
Andhra Pradesh thus the influence of telugu language on the language of the people of Jeypore
can be clearly seen. The tribals of Koraput are also influenced by the two major languages that
are commonly being used in the state i.e. Odia andTelugu, which has resulted in linguistic
assimilation. Many tribal communities have lost their original tongue and today speak the two
main languages of the state.The study clearly indicates that most of the tribes today do not speak
their original language or even encourage their children to learn the basic ideology of their long
lived tribal culture. Today, the use of the local language, Odia, has been an important aspect in
Koraput and the tribal languages have become limited and the use of Odia language has taken
their place.

Welfare programmes for tribal people have to be based on respect and understanding of their
culture and traditions and an appreciation of the social, Psychological and economic problems
 64

with which they are faced. Details of development programmes should be formulated in
consultation with members of advisory councils, leaders of tribal opinion and institutes engaged
in the study of tribal problems. The tribal people should feel that these programmes are, in a real
sense, a response to their own urge for better standards of living and the development of their
culture. If the programmes are implemented with popular support, they will give the tribal people
in all parts of the country, a sense of partnership and integration with the nations as a whole.

However, this approach of the Government was not fully appreciated by the planners and
administration. According to Haimendorf, even among the educated Indians, there seem to be
growing unwillingness to face the fact that the tribal people will for a long time, form a separate
and unassimilated element within the Indian Nation. They wanted the immediate assimilation of
tribes into the mainstream of national life so that the special provisions are done away with21.
Haimendorf rightly points out that such a trend disturbs the public opinion and is inimical to
tribal interests22. The working group on Development of Scheduled Tribes during the seventh
Five Year Plan endorsed the above view. It emphasizes that the distinction between assimilation
and integration should be underlined. Integration implied participation in national thought and
action in accordance with the norms without losing one’s identity and culture. We are,
sometimes, opting to overlook the cause of anxiety in the tribal mind. It emphasizes that no
action should be taken which would make the tribals feel inferior about their own lifestyle,
manners, dress, houses, etc.

It is concluded from the study undertaken that due to the tread of modernisation in these tribal
villages, the tribals’ perceptions, thoughts, food habits, daily life styles, dresses, festivals, rule
and rituals, the eco-friendly, nature related culture etc., are all deteriorating due to the impact of
modernisation. As modernisation has entered tribal lifestyle, there is a chance to lose the
traditions and tribal uniqueness in the long run, in the changing scenario. Tribal religious
customs and traditions are clearly not easily definable as Islam and Buddhism or any other
religion.

Tribes are far away from their traditional occupations, though anthropologists and others who
study them might likely see them conforming to their image of primitiveness. Contemporary
tribal societies differ so widely in their habitats, social organizations, modes of production and
cultural practices, that to nurture a definition of tribe may turn to be disappointing.
 65

Suggestions:

● The state govt. And the central govt. Both are working hand in hand for the development
of the Tribal communities all over the country. They have some specific qualities
regarding their culture, thoughts and medicines which seems to be magical but still no
deep study has been done on it.

● For better and rapid development the people and students related to the field of
anthropology and social science can spread the qualities and the culture, which can attract
a good number of tourists scopes.

● The education level should be reframed that goes on track without hampering their
knowledge level which they have preserved since years.

● Specific plans should be made according to areas. As not every tribal community stays in
the same environment.

● A place and reputation in the society: As most people think that tribals are ashamed of
themselves because they don’t wear clothes and so they cannot live in urban or rural
township. This thought needs to be replaced with how good they are with their tradition
and culture.

● The Scheme of digital India should have some workshops regarding their development
and tribal access to technology should be promoted. The Tribal farmers grow organic
since ages and have pure form of many resources that should be promoted more and more
so that the demand of the urban people which is easily and directly available with the
rural can be sought.
 66

● Proper education infrastructure should be created so as to keep the tribals away from
religion changing and avoid getting them to join Maoists and Naxalite.

● The Tribal communities have their own dialect which needs to be preserved so some
steps are necessary before it's too late.

● A Proverb is well known in Odisha that is: Baramasa Tera Parba. This means we have 13
festivals in 12 months. People of Odisha celebrate every occasion and celebration for
preserving our own culture would be special for every individual let it ṣbe tribal, rural or
Urban.
 67

References
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adivasi

http://censusindia.gov.in/Tables_Published/SCST/dh_st_orissa.pdf

https://www.orissatourism.org/odisha-tribes/

https://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/187087/7/07_chapter%202.pdf

https://www.wattpad.com/9468276-adivasis-of-orissa-list-of-different-tribes-of

https://www.tourmyindia.com/states/odisha/tribes.html

https://archive.org/details/in.gov.ignca.2054/page/n7/mode/2up

https://www.weirdworm.com/10-weird-ways-of-communicating/

https://www.icfj.org/news/tribals-different-regions-india-find-they-speak-same-language-and-
now-share-information-cell

https://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/17101/11/11_chapter%203.pdf

http://www.egyankosh.ac.in/bitstream/123456789/17385/1/Unit-3.pdf

https://travellink-india.com/explore-and-experience-odisha/ethnic-tribes-of-odisha/

http://eptrienvis.nic.in/All%20PDF%20Files/Tribal%20Communities%20of%20Odisha.pdf

https://www.outlookindia.com/traveller/ot-getaway-guides/fairs-festivals_odisha/

http://magazines.odisha.gov.in/Orissareview/2016/April/engpdf/78-82.pdf

https://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/133053/9/09_chapter%203.pdf

https://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/71427/8/08_chapter%201.pdf

https://www.caluniv.ac.in/global-mdia-
journal/Winter%20Issue%20December%202011%20Commentaries/C-2%20Kaul.pdf

https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/17447143.2015.1050030?journalCode=rmmd20

http://themileage.org/2017/12/development-communication-india.html

https://online.seu.edu/articles/what-is-new-media/
 68

https://tribal.nic.in/Schemes.aspx

https://www.britannica.com/topic/tribe-anthropology

http://www.yourarticlelibrary.com/tribes/tribe-what-is-the-meaning-of-tribe/32954

http://orienvis.nic.in/index1.aspx?lid=343&mid=1&langid=1&linkid=234

https://www.etribaltribune.com/index.php/home/about

https://www.researchgate.net/post/Study_of_tribal_or_indigenous_people_has_been_one_of_im
portant_element_of_Anthropology_but_how_can_we_justify_Tribal_study_in_todays_globalize
d_world

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/328214380_Term_Paper_Development_Communicatio
n

https://www.orissatourism.org/odisha-tribes/

https://joshuaproject.net/people_groups/16286/IN

http://trdimp.nic.in/Objectives.asp

https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/abs/10.1086/220264?journalCode=ajs

https://www.jstor.org/stable/2770595?seq=1

https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/blogs/voices/what-is-next-for-self-help-group-movement-in-
india/

https://tribal.nic.in/repository/ViewDoc.aspx?RepositoryNo=TRI22-08-
2017162859&file=Docs/TRI22-08-2017162859.pdf

https://www.ifad.org/en/web/ioe/evaluation/asset/39828830

https://pib.gov.in/newsite/PrintRelease.aspx?relid=193829

https://pib.gov.in/newsite/PrintRelease.aspx?relid=180875

https://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/94437/17/17_chapter%2010.pdf

https://www.researchtrend.net/ijet/pdf/138-S-838.pdf

https://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/27438/8/08_chapter_1.pdf