14.

26 Palynology and Its Application to Geomorphology

PT Moss, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
r 2013 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

14.26.1 Introduction 315

14.26.2 Palynological Analysis 316
14.26.2.1 Palynological Laboratory Techniques 316
14.26.2.2 Pollen and Charcoal Counting Methods 317
14.26.2.3 Generation of Pollen Diagrams 319
14.26.3 Palynology and Its Applications to Geomorphology 320
14.26.3.1 Age Control 320
14.26.3.2 Environmental Palynology 321
14.26.3.3 Depositional Environments 322
14.26.3.4 Human Impact 323
14.26.4 Conclusion 323
14.26.5 Use of Exotic Markers 324
References 324

Glossary Palynology Analysis of fossil pollen and spores used for

Carbonized particles Burnt organic material (i.e.,
charcoal) that occurs in sedimentary rocks or sediment.
They are commonly associated with palynomorphs as
microcharcoal.
Environmental palynology The use of palynomorphs to
reconstruct past environmental conditions and ecological
communities.
Exines Distinctive surface structure and morphology of
pollen and spores.
reconstructing past environments.
Palynomorphs Microfossils (generally pollen and spores)
preserved in sedimentary rocks or sediment.
Sporopollenin Decay-resistant organic compound that
forms the surface of pollen and spores.
Stratigraphic palynology The use of palynomorphs to
correlate sedimentary sequences or provide age control for
sedimentary sequences.

Abstract

Pollen analysis can provide a number of valuable applications to a geomorphological context, which include providing
both relative and absolute age control; significant environmental data in terms of past climates and depositional
environments; and information on impacts of people on landforms and geomorphological processes. This chapter provides
an overview of these applications, as well as a detailed examination of palynological laboratory techniques, pollen iden-
tification/counting, and the production/interpretation of pollen diagrams.

14.26.1 Introduction related to both taxonomic origin and depositional environ-

Pollen analysis is the study of fossil pollen and spores and is
one of the main methods for reconstructing past landscapes.
Pollen grains are unicellular, microscopic (15 to 100 mm) re-
productive gametes of seed-producing plants, whereas spores
are the analogous organs of nonflowering pteridophytes
(mosses, ferns, and fern allies) (Faegri and Iversen, 1991;
Coil et al., 2003). Preservation of pollen and spores (or
palynomorphs) in sediments depends on characteristics
Moss, P.T., 2013. Palynology and its application to geomorphology. In:
Shroder, J. (Editor in Chief), Switzer, A.D., Kennedy, D.M. (Eds.), Treatise
on Geomorphology. Academic Press, San Diego, CA, vol. 14, Methods in
Geomorphology, pp. 315–325.
ment. Generally, fossil pollen and spores preserve best in
anaerobic conditions (e.g., bogs, swamps, lakes, and marine
sediments) and can be destroyed if any oxidation occurs
(Coil et al., 2003; Seppä, 2007). In addition, different plants
species have different pollen and spore production rates and
also utilize different transport vectors (i.e., wind, water, or
animal) that can significantly impact pollen representation
(Seppä, 2007). For instance, Pinus pollen can be very well
represented in a sediment record, due to high production
and wind dispersal rates (Pohl, 1937; Seppä, 2007), whereas
pollen of the Lauraceae family is rarely preserved in sediments
due to low production and dispersal by animal vectors
(Macphail, 1980). During sedimentation the soft-bodied
reproductive cellular contents are lost, with fossil pollen

Treatise on Geomorphology, Volume 14 http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-374739-6.00395-X 315

316 Palynology and Its Application to Geomorphology

and spores consisting of a decay resistant organic compound,
that is, sporopollenin (Coil et al., 2003; Seppä, 2007).
The distinctive surface structure and morphology (exines)
of fossil pollen and spores can generally be taxonomically
assigned to their plant of origin with a high degree of
precision, sometimes to species but more often to genus or
family level.
The general techniques that are used to extract fossil
pollen from sediment samples are reviewed here. This review
includes information on basic laboratory techniques; an out-
line of pollen identification and counting methods; a review
of charcoal identification and counting techniques; and pollen
data representation, particularly the construction and inter-
pretation of pollen diagrams. Further, an overview of the four
main areas in which pollen analysis can be used in a geo-
morphological context are provided. These include: (1) age
control; (2) environmental palynology; (3) depositional en-
vironments; and (4) human impacts/land uses. In each area a
case study is discussed that illustrates how palynology has
been applied from a geomorphological perspective.
14.26.2 Palynological Analysis
14.26.2.1 Palynological Laboratory Techniques
The laboratory techniques used in extracting pollen from
sediments are outlined in Table 1. These processes have been
undertaken since 1916 with Lennart van Post outlining the
initial steps in his seminal Kristina lecture (Faegri and Iversen,
1991). Subsequent research has added a number of key steps,
including the use of hydrofluoric acid (Assarson and Granlund,
1924), the acetylosis process (Erdtman, 1934) and the use of
nontoxic heavy liquid solutions (van der Kaars, 1991; Riding
and Kyffin-Hughes, 2004, 2006), that have greatly improved the
success of pollen analysis techniques in terms of the quantity
and quality of palynomorphs extracted from sediment cores or
rock samples and are outlined below in more detail.
The initial step consists of sampling the sediment. The
volume of sample required is dependent on the suspected
pollen concentration occurring within the sediment. If the
sample contains a high amount of organic material (i.e.,
peats) then generally around 1 cm3 is taken and if the sedi-
ment is mainly composed of inorganic materials (i.e., deep
marine sediments) then generally around 5 to 10 cm3 of
sediment is extracted. In addition, sampling intervals for the
sediment core or rock sample can be selected at this stage. The
sampling interval strategy depends on the aims of the pro-
posed research and the total length of the sediment core/rock
exposure. Many palynological studies having sample intervals
of approximately 10 to 20 cm along the length of a sediment
core/rock exposure. Furthermore, exotic pollen marker tablets
can be added in this step, the most commonly used marker
types are Lycopodium clavatum or Eucalyptus sp., and the
researcher has to ensure that these marker types are not lo-
cated in their study area. The tablets have a known concen-
tration of pollen grains, which can then be counted along with
the palynomorphs and carbonized particles in the sample to
determine pollen and charcoal concentration values (Maher,
1972; Salgado-Labouriau and Rull, 1986; Wang et al., 1999).
The tablets can be dissolved by heating (to 100 1C) in ap-
proximately 10 ml of distilled water or adding them to 10 ml
of hydrochloric acid (10%). The sediment sample is then
added to this mixture before the next stage. Plastic micro-
spheres can be used in place of exotic marker tablets and are
generally added to the pollen concentrate at the end of the
laboratory analysis procedures (Salgado-Labouriau and Rull,
1986).
The next stage involves sample disaggregation and defloc-
culation. If the samples are lithified then they may need
to undergo mechanical disaggregation (i.e., grinding) before
deflocculation. Clay dispersal can be achieved by using a
chemical deflocculant such as tetra-sodium pyrophosphate
(10%), generally approximately 30 to 40 ml is added to
the sample in a 100 ml beaker. The beaker is then heated to
100 1C for 40 min with occasional stirring to break up larger

Table 1 Summary of pollen analysis techniques

Aims Laboratory techniques

Sample preparation • Generally 1 to 10 cm3 of sediment or rock material is used.

Sample deflocculation and disaggregation
Removal of unwanted inorganic material
Removal of unwanted fine organic material and staining of
pollen grains and spores
Mounting of pollen samples on slides
• Addition of exotic pollen marker can also occur at this stage.
• Lithified samples may require mechanical disaggregation (i.e., grinding or crushing).
• Clay dispersal can be achieved through the use of a deflocculation chemical.
• Heating and stirring of sample can be used to break up larger aggregates.
• Sieving can also be used to remove both course and fine fractions in the samples.
• Samples with high organic or calcium carbonate content may need to undergo
chemical disaggregation to remove excess material.
• Acid digestion can be used to remove unwanted inorganic material (i.e., silicates).
• Alternatively, the organic fraction can be separated (floated off) from the inorganic
fraction through the use of a heavy liquid solution.
• Acetolysis is used to dissolve fine cellulose material. This process also stains the
pollen grains.
• Saffarin stain can be used in the absence of acetolysis if there is any concern over
loss of palynomorphs in low concentration samples.
• Samples are transferred to a suitable mounting medium and then mounted on slides
for pollen, spore, and microcharcoal counting.

aggregates. After cooling, the sample is sieved across a 200 mm
mesh to remove material above this size (mainly sand, root-
lets, and other large organic material) and an 8 mm mesh to
remove particles (mainly clay) below this size. The samples are
then transferred back to a 100 ml beaker and left overnight to
settle. If the material contains high concentrations of calcium
carbonate then approximately 20 ml of hydrochloric acid
(10%) is added to chemically disaggregate the calcium car-
bonate from the sample and the samples are again left over-
night to settle. The next step involves siphoning the excess
liquid from the sample and then transferring the material to a
15 ml plastic test-tube. The sample then undergoes a wash to
remove excess tetra-sodium pyrophosphate. This process in-
volves adding approximately 10 ml of distilled water, then
centrifuging the sample for 3 to 5 min at 3000 rotations per
minute (rpm) and pouring off the excess liquid. This step is
repeated again before the next stage is undertaken. If the
sample is suspected of containing high amounts of organic
materials then potassium hydroxide (10%) can be used to
chemically disaggregate the humic acids from the sample.
This stage involves adding 10 ml of potassium hydroxide
to the test-tube, heating at 100 1C for 5 min, centrifuging
(at 3000 rpm) and pouring off the excess liquid. Two water
washes are then undertaken before the next step.
The next involves the removal of unwanted inorganic
material (mainly silicates) and there are two main methods
that can be used for this: the acid digestion method (Faegri
and Iversen, 1991) and the heavy liquid method (van der
Kaars, 1991). The acid digestion method involves digesting
the silicates with 10 ml of hydrofluoric acid (B40%) added to
the sample, which is then left overnight. The sample is then
centrifuged (at 3000 rpm) and the excess liquid is transferred
to a suitable waste hydrofluoric acid container for neutralizing
and disposal at a later date. The samples then undergo two
water washes before the next step. It should be noted that
hydrofluoric acid is highly toxic and corrosive and requires
special precautions, including special protective personal
equipment (face shield, gloves, and apron), exclusive use in a
fume-hood and the provision of calcium gluconate gel (2.5%)
to treat chemical burns from accidental spillages (Riding and
Kyffin-Hughes, 2004, 2006; Roblin et al., 2006). In addition,
the acid digestion method may not be particularly effective for
samples with a high component of silicate material (i.e.,
marine sediments) and the heavy liquid method was initially
developed for deep ocean marine sediments but can also be
applied to wide variety of different sediment types that have
traditionally been processed using the acid digestion method,
including peats, silts, and clays (van der Kaars, 1991). This
method (using sodium polytungstate) also has the advantage
of being relatively nontoxic and not requiring the special
precautions that are associated with the use of hydrofluoric
acid. Heavy liquid separation is achieved through the addition
of 6 ml of sodium polytungstate (with a specific density of
2.0) into the samples (at the same stage as the acid digestion
method) the sample is then centrifuged at 2500 rpm for 20 to
30 min. The lighter organic fraction floats to the surface,
whereas the heavier inorganic fraction is left at the bottom of
the test-tube. The organic fraction is then separated by pouring
off into another 15 ml test-tube and then two water washes are
undertaken prior to the next step.
Palynology and Its Application to Geomorphology 317
The process of acetolysis is undertaken to dissolve excess
organic (cellulose) material and to darken the palynomorphs to
assist with identification. Prior to acetolysis, it is very important
that the samples are washed in concentrated glacial acetic acid to
prevent the acetolysis mixture and water contained in the sam-
ples reacting, as this will cause a violent and potentially dan-
gerous reaction. Acetolysis involves adding a 9:1 mixture of
acetic anhydride and concentrated sulfuric acid to the samples
(generally 9 ml acetic anhydride to 1 ml sulfuric acid), which are
then heated for up to 5 min. The samples are then centrifuged at
3000 rpm for 5 min and the excess acetolysis liquid is poured
off into a suitable waste container (along with the glacial acetic
acid) for neutralizing and disposal at a later date. The samples
then undergo two water washes before the next step. There is
some evidence that prolonged treatment (i.e., beyond 3 min) in
the acetolysis mixture may damage and corrode pollen grains
(Charman, 1992). Therefore, if there are concerns about ob-
taining suitable pollen yields from samples with low palyno-
morph concentrations (e.g., marine sediments) or if key taxa
with delicate exines (e.g., members of the Juncaceae) may be
lost from the record (see Nilsson and Praglowski, 1992), then
pollen concentrate samples can be stained with safranin in lieu
of darkening by acetolysis.
Before slide mounting the samples need to be washed in
absolute ethanol to remove excess water. This is achieved by
adding 10 ml of ethanol, then centrifuging at 3000 rpm,
pouring of the excess liquid and then transferring to a 1 ml
or 0.5 ml container. The smaller containers are then centri-
fuged at 2500 rpm, with the excess ethanol poured off.
A suitable mounting medium is then added, most commonly
glycerol or silicon oil is used but if palynomorphs need to be
fixed then they can be mounted in glycerol jelly. Pipettes can
then be used to transfer subsamples (generally a few drops) to
a slide for counting. The most common sealing agents that are
used to fix cover-slips over the pollen concentrate samples
include clear nail polish or wax, with wax being used if the
samples are required to be stored for a longer time as slides
sealed with this method are more permanent than those
sealed with nail polish.
14.26.2.2 Pollen and Charcoal Counting Methods
Pollen, spores, and carbonized particles are generally counted
under a compound light microscope at between  400 and
 650 magnification. There are a range of reference collections
that can be used to aid with identification of pollen and spore
taxa (e.g., USDA pollen reference collection, European pollen
reference collection and the Australasian pollen and spore
atlas). The selection of the appropriate reference collection
depends on the location of the study site and some examples
of some excellent general collections are shown in Table 2. In
addition, a list of the local and regional vegetation can be very
useful in assisting with taxonomic identification, as well
as a review of any previous palynological studies undertaken
within the study region. Generally, a minimum pollen count
that should be applied to a pollen sample is at least 300
identifiable dryland pollen grains. The dryland group gener-
ally consists of arboreal taxa and dryland herbs, whereas the
wetland group (consisting of local aquatic taxa and fern
spores) is also counted but not generally incorporated within
318 Palynology and Its Application to Geomorphology

Table 2 Examples of pollen and spore reference collection websites

Reference collection URL

United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) reference collection http://pollen.usda.gov/reference_collection/

Reference_Collection.htm
European pollen reference collection http://www.geog.ox.ac.uk/research/biodiversity/lel/refcollections/
pollen-european.html)
African pollen database http://medias3.mediasfrance.org/apd/accueil.htm
The University of Arizona catalogues of internet pollen and spore images http://www.geo.arizona.edu/palynology/polonweb.html
Australasian Pollen and Spore Atlas http://apsa.anu.edu.au

Figure 1 Examples of fossil pollen: (a) Casuarinaceae pollen (equatorial diameter:B40 mm), Quaternary South East Queensland tree. (b)
Poaceae pollen (equatorial diameter:B30 mm), Quaternary South East Queensland grass. (c) Typha pollen (equatorial diameter:B30 mm),
Quaternary North East Queensland bullrush. (d) Polygonum pollen (equatorial diameter:B50 mm), Quaternary North East Queensland aquatic
species. (e) Alnus pollen (equatorial diameter:B20 mm), Eocene Okanagan Highlands, British Columbia alder species. (f) Quercus pollen
(equatorial diameter:B30 mm), Eocene Okanagan Highlands, British Columbia oak species. (g) Sequioa pollen (equatorial diameter:B30 mm),
Eocene Okanagan Highlands, British Columbia redwood species. (h) Picea pollen (total length:B80 mm), Eocene Okanagan Highlands, British
Columbia spruce species, and (i) microcharcoal particles (B10 to 15 mm long), Quaternary South East Queensland.

the pollen sum. The minimum pollen count can vary
depending of site characteristics and the general aims of the
pollen analysis. The level of taxonomic identification of
the pollen taxa vary between species, genus and family levels.
Figure 1 provides an example of some pollen grains, as well
as an image of carbonized particles. In addition, taxa can be
divided into a number of groupings based on the occurrence
in extant plant communities or associations.
There are two methods that can be utilized with charcoal
analysis the point count method devised by Clark (1982) and
the spike concentration method of Wang et al. (1999). Both
methods involve identifying charcoal or carbonized particles
as black angular particles above 10 mm in size, the point count
method involves counting at least 200 points on the slide and
using the following equation to calculate charcoal concen-
tration (pollen concentrations can also be determined by this
method as well):
Concentration ¼ C  A=AðtÞ  V ðpmÞ=V ðsÞ
where
C (or P) – number of carbonized particles (or palyno-
morphs) counted,
A – area of a slide,
A(t) – area of slide traversed,
V (pm) – volume of prepared material in glycerol,
V (s) – volume of prepared material in one slide.
 Palynology and Its Application to Geomorphology 319

The spike concentration method involves the addition (i.e., vegetation groupings, ash content, and pollen/charcoal
of an exotic marker pollen grain (generally Lycopodium sp. or concentration). The pollen data graphs are converted into
Eucalyptus sp.) or plastic microspheres, then counting the percentage format by the TILIA program, based on the dryland
number of carbonized particles over three transects, along pollen sum, which in this case consist of rainforest, sclerophyll
with the number of grains or microspheres from which char- arboreal taxa and sclerophyll sum and should add up to
coal (and pollen) concentration can be determined by the 100%. Also shown are the wetland taxa components, com-
following equation: prising aquatic taxa and pteridophytes, and these taxa occur
outside of the pollen sum (forming the total pollen sum). The
Concentration ¼ e=E  C y-axis consists of the depth variables, with the shallowest
sample at the top and the deepest sample at the bottom. In
where
addition, ages of the sediment can be shown along the y-axis
e – number of grains or microspheres counted in slide,
(in this case a calibrated AMS 14C age) and the sediment
E – known concentration of grains/microspheres added
stratigraphy can also be shown along the y-axis if appropriate
to sample,
(Table 3).
C (or P) – number of carbonized particles (or palyno-
The pollen diagram can also be zoned by vertical lines and
morphs) counted in slide. Both charcoal and pollen concen-
these lines can be based on chronozones (e.g., oxygen isotope
trations are expressed as number per cubic centimeter.
stages) or by classification of the pollen data. In this example
the pollen data were classified using a stratigraphically con-
strained classification employing the Edward’s and Cavali-
14.26.2.3 Generation of Pollen Diagrams
Sforza’s chord distance measure (Grimm, 1987), which has
A number of specialized computer programs can be used to produced four zones (LSS A to D) and these zones are com-
present pollen data as pollen diagrams. Common programs monly used to discuss the pollen results, generally from bot-
that are used include TILIA (Grimm, 2004) and C2 (Juggins, tom to top. Influx diagrams are the other pollen diagram
2003). Percentage diagrams are generally the most common format and they are generally much rarer, as they are based on
pollen diagram format and Figure 2 presents an example of calculation of pollen concentrations and also require esti-
a percentage pollen diagram produced in the TILIA program mates of pollen production and dispersal from extant plants,
(Mackenzie et al., 2009). The x-axis consists of graphs which can be difficult to determine (Seppä, 2007). The main
of the palynological taxa and other useful information advantage of influx diagrams is that they can discern patterns

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60
65
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20 40 60 20 20 40 60 20 20 20 20 40 20 20 40 60 80 100 20 40 20 40 0 0
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Figure 2 Example percentage pollen diagram from Lake Selina Swamp, Tasmania, Australia. Adapted from Mackenzie, L.L., Moss, P.T., Petherick,
L., 2009. Mid to late Holocene vegetation and environments of Lake Selina Swamp, western Tasmania. Quaternary of Australia 26, 2–7.

Table 3 Pollen diagram programs

Pollen diagram programs Reference and web link

TILIA Grimm (2004); http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/paleo/tiliafaq.html

C2 Juggins (2003); http://www.staff.ncl.ac.uk/staff/stephen.juggins/software/C2Home.htm
320 Palynology and Its Application to Geomorphology

that are not obvious in percentage diagrams by highlighting (Traverse, 2007). Stratigraphic palynology is an important
poorly produced/dispersed pollen taxa and smoothing pollen component of biostratigraphy, which is a discipline that
taxa with high pollen production/good dispersal character- applies evolutionary and geological principles to under-
istics (Davis et al., 1973). standing sedimentary sequences and the geological record.
Generally, stratigraphic palynology is applied to pre-Quater-
nary sediments, particularly associated with the petroleum
industry, but the basic stratigraphic principles also apply to
14.26.3 Palynology and Its Applications to
Quaternary sediments. Figure 3 shows a stratigraphic profile
Geomorphology
for a number of Eocene sites from the Okanagan Highlands in
British Columbia/Washington State (Greenwood et al., 2005;
Four main areas occur, either individually or in combination,
Moss et al., 2005). The solid black lines reflect radiometric
in which pollen analysis can be applied in a geomorpho-
ages, whereas the gray lines indicate ages based on biostrati-
logical context. As noted at the outset, these include: (1) age
graphy, predominately determined from stratigraphic paly-
control; (2) environmental palynology; (3) depositional en-
nology. That is diagnostic taxa, such as Tilia, Quercus, Ilex,
vironments; and (4) human impacts/land uses.
and Platycarya in these samples denotes a post Late Paleocene
age (Manchester, 1987; Harrison et al., 1999), whereas the
presence of the diagnostic taxa Pistillipollenites macgregorii
14.26.3.1 Age Control
reflects a Upper Palaeocene to Middle Eocene age (Rouse,
The identification, distribution, and abundance of palyno- 1977; Harrison et al., 1999) and provides further chrono-
morphs have long been used to correlate sedimentary se- logical resolution. The absence of particular palynomorphs
quences or provide age control for these sedimentary can also be used to provide age control for sediments.
sequences, and are generally defined as stratigraphic palynology For instance the absence of Gothanipollis pollen from the

Geological British columbia (canada)

time scale & washington state (USA)

20.4
Oligocene

1. Republic
30
2. Allenby Fm. (princeton)
Early

Rupelian
3. Falkland
4. McAbee
33.9
35 5. Hal creek
Late

Priabonian
6. Horsefly
37.2 7. Driftwood canyon
Bartcnian
Cenozoic (in part) / plaeogene (in part)

40
40.4
Middle
Eocene

45 Lutetian Okanagan highlands

1 2 3 4 5 6 7
la

48.6
50 ? ?
A
Early

Ypresian B

55
55.8
Thanetian
58.7
Late
Paleocene

60 Selandian
61.7
Early

Danian
65
Figure 3 Stratigraphic chart showing the age and relationship of the Okanagan Highlands fossil sites. Taken from Moss, P.T., Greenwood, D.R.,
Archibald, S.B., 2005. Regional and local vegetation community dynamics of the Eocene Okanagan Highlands (British Columbia – Washington
State) from palynology. Canadian Journal of Earth Science 42, 187–204 (page 190).
 Palynology and Its Application to Geomorphology 321

Okanagan samples is also indicative of a Middle Eocene age,
as this pollen taxon occurs in Late Eocene and Oligocene
samples (Rouse, 1977; Long and Sweet, 1994; Ridgway et al.,
1995).
Palynological analysis can also be utilized to provide direct
age control through the use of accelerated mass spectrometry
(AMS) radiocarbon dating of pollen concentrate, particularly
with samples with low organic content for bulk radiocarbon
dating, lacking large fragments of charcoal, plant macrofossils,
shell or bone for AMS dating, or providing comparison dates
with bulk samples or other material dated by AMS techniques
(Brown et al., 1989). The laboratory analysis for the prepar-
ation of pollen concentrate samples for AMS radiocarbon
dating is very similar to the heavy liquid technique outlined
above, except that exotic marker spores are not added, acet-
olysis is not undertaken (as it would remove the humic acids
that are crucial for radiocarbon dating) and the samples are
sent to the radiocarbon laboratories in distilled water. At least
10 mg of pollen concentrate is required for successful and
reliable radiocarbon dates (Regnéll, 1992).
14.26.3.2 Environmental Palynology
Pollen data can be used to reconstruct past climatic conditions
and ecological communities that are pertinent to the explan-
ation of geomorphological features or processes. These
reconstructions are generally dependant on one or more of the
following: (1) reconstruction of ecological communities or
plant associations with their present distribution dependant
on climatic parameters; (2) identification of climatic indicator
species; and (3) establishment of numerical transfer functions
linking the fossil plant assemblage to climatic parameters that
reflect modern conditions. Generally stratigraphic and en-
vironmental palynology can be combined to provide a very
detailed and well dated reconstruction that examines key
climatic and ecological processes.
For instance, Figure 4 presents the environmental re-
construction for the Middle Eocene Okanagan region, with
three major communities or plant associations reflecting dif-
ferent climatic and geomorphological settings (Moss et al.,
2005). The Fir-Spruce association dominates higher ridges and
cooler north aspect slopes; the Birch-Golden Larch association
dominates local lakeshore, streamside and adjoining com-
munities; whereas the Palm-Swamp Cypress association oc-
cupies specialized habitats, such as low elevation areas of the
landscape, upland swamps, or warmer south-facing slopes.
Furthermore, a high degree of local variability on a local
scale occurs, which may reflect the influence of subregional
environmental factors (e.g., aspect, moisture availability,
volcanic activity, or fire). In addition, different deposition
environments may also impact pollen preservation and rep-
resentation. For instance, there is significantly higher repre-
sentation of the Palm-Swamp Cypress association in coal

N
C

Salix Carpinus Corylus Itea Rhus Ulmus Sassafras

Fagus Torreya
Thuje Tsuga Picea Abies Pinus
Platanus Castanea Juglans Nyssa Populus Betula llex Zelkova Taxus

Plam Liquidambar Cornus Alnus Fraxinus Quercus Acer Ginkgo Metasequoia Taxodium Pseudolarix
Figure 4 Reconstruction of a generalized Okanagan Highland forest structure and depositional setting: (a) Palm-Swamp Cypress association
dominant in low wet areas; (b) Birch-Golden Larch association mixed with Fir-Spruce association on better drained ground and hillsides; (c)
Fir-Spruce association dominant on higher ridges and north aspects. (d) Birch-Golden Larch association dominant streamsides; (e) lacustrine
shale formations; and (f) coal formation. Taken from Moss, P.T., Greenwood, D.R., Archibald, S.B., 2005. Regional and local vegetation
community dynamics of the Eocene Okanagan Highlands (British Columbia – Washington State) from palynology. Canadian Journal of Earth
Science 42, 187–204, (page 199).
322 Palynology and Its Application to Geomorphology

swamp deposits than in similarly aged shale sediments re-
flecting lacustrine conditions, which have a more significant
representation of the Birch-Golden Larch and Fir-Spruce
associations.
Palaoeclimatic conditions for the Okanagan Highlands
have also been estimated using bioclimatic analysis or the
coexistence approach (Kershaw and Nix, 1988; Kershaw, 1996;
Mosbrugger and Utescher, 1997; Greenwood et al., 2005).
This technique requires the development of ‘climatic profiles’
(parameters such as mean annual temperature or mean an-
nual precipitation) from the climate associated with the dis-
tribution of modern plant genera, in this case a study of North
American tree genera by Thompson et al. (1999) and the
PALAEOFLORA database (PALAEOFLORA database, 2003;
Mosbrugger and Utescher, 1997). The next step is to identify as
many ‘nearest living analogs’ (NLA) as possible in the fossil
record (which can include both pollen and spore taxa, as well
as plant macrofossils). A library of climatic profiles is then
generated for several key taxa based on key climatic values and
a zone of overlap for the set of NLAs is then developed, which
reflects the most likely climate space occupied for the indi-
vidual fossil taxa (Kershaw and Nix, 1988; Kershaw, 1996;
Mosbrugger and Utescher, 1997; Greenwood et al., 2003).
This approach is generally associated with large errors but
does provide a more quantitative estimate than more
qualitative and narrative estimates and should also be com-
pared with other palaeoclimatic proxies (e.g., Leaf Margin
Analysis and transfer functions based on other fossil types,
e.g., beetles or chrinomids).
14.26.3.3 Depositional Environments
Pollen data along with sedimentological results can provide
significant information on depositional environments, par-
ticularly related to sea-level alteration or other significant
palaeoclimatic events (e.g., the late Pleistocene/Holocene
deglaciation). Figure 5 illustrates the changes in depositional
environments during the sea-level rise associated with the late
Pleistocene/Holocene deglaciation for the continental shelf of
the northern Australian tropics (Moss, 1999). Five lithological
units occur in this record, ranging from a sand–clay rich re-
gressive unit, a sand rich lowstand unit, a mangrove mud early
transgressive unit, a carbonate/mangrove mud late transgres-
sive unit to a carbonate rich highstand unit. A clear link exists
between this lithology and alterations in mangrove abun-
dances, with mangrove values increasing in the lowstand
period (B15 000 years ago), peaking during the early trans-
gressive period (B9000 years ago), and declining in the late
transgressive sediments (B7500 years ago). This sequence of

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Figure 5 Pollen (%) and sediment diagram of the late Pleistocene-Holocene transition from the Ocean Drilling Program core 820, humid tropics
of northeastern Australia. Adapted from Moss, P.T., 1999. Late Quaternary environments of the humid tropics of northeastern Australia. Ph.D.
thesis, Monash University, Australia, unpublished.
 Palynology and Its Application to Geomorphology 323

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Figure 6 Den Plain pollen diagram. The þ symbol reflects taxa that occur in low values (less than 2.0%) and the dotted line marks the
presence of exotic pollen. Adapted from Moss, P.T., Thomas, I., Macphail, M., 2007. Late Holocene vegetation and environments of the Mersey
Valley, Tasmania. Australian Journal of Botany 55, 74–82.

alterations in mangrove pollen and sedimentology correlates
well with the late Pleistocene/Holocene sea level rise, but also
illustrates the effects of regional geomorphology. For instance,
there is a limited scope for mangrove growth during the last
glacial maximum due to lower sea-levels (  120 m) being
located at the continental shelf and forming a very steep
coastline; mangrove growth peaking during the early trans-
gressive, when the coastline is protected by the outer Great
Barrier Reef, gently sloping (i.e., flat drowning continental
shelf) and increased mud sediment (due to increased pre-
cipitation); and limited mangrove growth during the late
transgressive/highstand period due to steep coastline associ-
ated with coastal mountain ranges, coastal progradation and
the distance of the site from mainland mangrove communities
(Grindrod et al., 1999, 2002).
14.26.3.4 Human Impact
Pollen records can also provide detailed information on al-
terations in plant communities and land-use changes associ-
ated with human activities. Changes in fire management,
development of agriculture, introduction of exotic taxa, for-
estry practices, urbanization, and land degradation can be
observed in pollen records and associated sedimentary records
across the globe. Figure 6 shows an example of the impacts of
European settlement on a small plain in north-western Tas-
mania, Australia (Moss et al., 2007). The occurrence of exotic
pollen grains at 60 cm has been used to date the record to the
1860s, when European agricultural activity was first practiced
in the region. The key impacts associated with this activity
was significant land clearance associated with a decline in
forest taxa and an increase in grasses, reflecting grazing as
the dominant land-use within the plain. In addition, a sig-
nificant alteration in carbonized particle representation
occurs that may reflect the onset of fire suppression as a sig-
nificant management technique. Something that is generally
associated with European settlers in Australia. Further, the
sedimentological results for the record also reflect profound
impacts associated with European settlement. A significant
increase in inorganic content from 85 cm occurs in the sedi-
ment record that best reflects land-clearance and pastoral ac-
tivities within the Mersey River catchment (Den Plain is
located on the banks of this river). Below 85 cm the sediment
records consist primarily of organic-rich peats, with little in-
organic material and the base of the record (at B120 cm) has
been dated to B3000 years before from now, suggesting that
there has been a 14.7 times increase in sedimentation rates
within the region since European settlement. Although evi-
dence of agricultural activities is relatively clear in pollen data
and associated sedimentary records, the evidence for the ef-
fects of relatively low-impact hunter gatherers is not as dis-
cernable. Generally increases in carbonized particles in pollen
records have been used as an indicator for human arrival into
a region, however, these increases may also be associated with
climate alterations and it can be somewhat difficult to dis-
entangle the relative influences of human impact from natural
climatic alterations.
14.26.4 Conclusion
Palynological analysis can be applied to a wide range of geo-
morphological contexts and as outlined above it can provide a
range of data and information that greatly improves under-
standing of geomorphological processes or of a particular
landform. This includes the provision of a relative chrono-
logy through stratigraphic palynology, absolute age control
through AMS dating of pollen concentrate, palaeoclimatolo-
gical, or palaeoecological data, information on depositional
environments and the impacts of people/human land use.
Therefore, it is crucial for geomorphologists to have an
understanding of pollen analysis techniques, whether it is
324 Palynology and Its Application to Geomorphology
basic knowledge of how to interpret a pollen diagram of their
study area to a more advanced understanding of pollen
identification, counting, and laboratory techniques.
14.26.5 Use of Exotic Markers
Exotic markers are used to calculate pollen and charcoal
concentrations, that is, the number of pollen grains (or char-
coal particles) per cm3 of sediment. Concentration values
may change through the course of a pollen or charcoal
record and may provide information on environmental
changes (e.g., higher pollen concentrations during warmer
and wetter climates) or sedimentological alterations (e.g.,
changes in depositional rates altering pollen concentrations).
In addition, alterations in charcoal concentrations generally
reflect changes in fire regimes that may reflect broader alter-
ations in the environment (i.e., climate change or anthropo-
genic activity). Exotic markers can be pollen grains that do not
occur in the study region (commonly Lycopodium sp. or Eu-
calyptus sp.) or plastic microspheres that are of similar size to
pollen grains (B15 to 20 mm). The markers (with a known
concentration) are added during the laboratory analysis and
then counted on the slide as the microscope analysis occurs to
determine the pollen or charcoal concentration of the sedi-
ment sample.
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Biographical Sketch
Patrick Moss is a Senior Lecturer in Physical Geography at The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia. His
research interests are in the areas of Quaternary environmental change (i.e., last 2 million years) in eastern
Australia and the Eocene greenhouse environments (i.e., 50 million years ago) of British Columbia, Canada. He
gained his PhD from Monash University and has a BA (Hons.) and BSc from The University of Melbourne. He
teaches in the areas of physical geography, palaeoecology, biogeography, and landscape ecology.