Paper No:7 Energy and Environment

Module:7 Hydropower as an energy source

Development Team
Prof. R.K. Kohli
Principal Investigator
& Prof. V.K. Garg &Prof.AshokDhawan
Co- Principal Investigator
Central University of Punjab, Bathinda

Dr. Dhanya M.S.,

Paper Coordinator
Central University of Punjab, Bathinda
Prof. Arun Kumar Professor and MNRE Chair

Content Writer Professor, Alternate Hydro Energy Centre

IIT, Roorkee

Content Reviewer Prof. A.K Jain, Former Director, SSSNIRE

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Anchor Institute Central University of Punjab

Energy and Environment

Environmental
Sciences Principles of generation of hydropower
 Description of Module

Subject Name Environmental Sciences

Paper Name Energy and Environment

Module Name/Title Hydropower as an energy source

Module Id EVS/EE-VII/7

Pre-requisites

To learn about

 Operating Principle of Hydro power

 Hydropower potential in India

Objectives  Types of hydropower generation plants

 Know different components of hydro energy

 Factors effecting energy production in a hydropower plant

 Classification of hydropower plants

Keywords Hydropower, hydropower plants, energy

Energy and Environment

Environmental
Sciences Principles of generation of hydropower
 Module.7 Hydropower as an energy source
Objectives

After studying this module one shall be able to

 Operating Principle of Hydro power
 Hydropower potential in India
 Types of hydropower generation plants
 Know different components of hydro energy
 Factors effecting energy production in a hydropower plant
 Classification of hydropower plants

1. HYDRO POWER

Hydropower is a renewable energy source where power is derived from the energy of water moving
from higher to lower elevations. It is derived from a greek word ‘Hydro’ for water. So hydropower is
the energy contained in water (ie electricity from water). Hydropower is a renewable energy source
where power is derived from the energy of water using its gravitational force when it is flowing or
falling. It is a proven, mature, predictable and cost competitive technology. Hydropower has among
the best conversion efficiencies of all known energy sources (about 90% efficiency, water to wire). It
requires relatively high initial investment, but has a long lifespan with very low operation and
maintenance costs. In the past, hydropower has acted as a catalyst for economic and social
development by providing both energy and water management services, and it can continue to do so in
the future. Hydro storage capacity can mitigate freshwater scarcity by providing security during lean
flows and drought for drinking water supply, irrigation, flood control and navigation services.
Hydropower plants do not consume the water that drives the turbines. The water, after power
generation, is available for various other essential uses. Hydropower can serve both in large,
centralized and small, isolated grids, and small-scale hydropower is an option for rural electrification.

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 2. HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF HYDRO POWER GENERATION

The development of hydro power in India started almost in the pace of world’s first hydro-electric
installation in 1882 (at Appleton USA). The early phase of hydro power installation were small hydro
only and played a crucial role. The 130 kW installation in Sidrapong (Darjeeling) in the year 1897 was
the first hydroelectric installation in India. Few other installations e.g. Shivasamundram in Mysore
(2000 kW) and Chamba (40 kW) in 1902, Mohra (450 kW) in 1905, Galogi in Mussoorie (3000 kW)
in 1907, Jammu (800 kW) and Karteri (997 kW) in 1908, Pullivasal (400 kW) in 1910 and Jubbal (50
kW) in 1911 and Chhaba (1750 kW) in Shimla in 1913 are the known SHP stations still working.
These plants were used primarily for lighting purposes in the important towns.

Major handicap of small hydroelectric stations in these days was high voltage transmission lines which
were not year developed and their distances from the load centre were to incur heavy line losses. With
the development of high voltage transmission lines in the early part of the twentieth century a shift
also occurred-from small hydro plants serving local electricity markets to large scale plants feeding
into extensive distributing grids. Bhakra, Rihand, Hirakund, Periyar, Koyna, Saravathi and Machkund
are some large hydropower projects executed in early days. The same trend was observed in thermal
plants fired by coal and later by petroleum fuels.

3. HYDROPOWER POTENTIAL

Hydropower potential may be estimated by using equation

Power in kW (P) = Q . H . 9.81 
Where Q Discharge in m3/s
H Head in meters
 Overall efficiency of turbine, generator and gear box (may be taken as
75% initially)

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 The head is relatively constant in run-of-river schemes except for variation in friction losses with the
varying discharge. In irrigation canal or dam toe based scheme head also vary depending season of
release of water as water level in the dam varies throughout the year. Weighted average is found out to
design the head of turbine. The design head is so selected that turbine is operated to the maximum time
giving optimum energy generation. Energy per year is calculated as below:

E = P . time (in hours 8760 per year) in kiloWatt hour

For the run of river hydropower scheme, it is useful to know the variation of flow over the year to
select the most appropriate turbine configuration and estimated power generation. Flow variation
presented in the form of a flow duration curve is the most useful form. The firm power and secondary
power could be easily estimated from the flow duration curve.

Power potential may not be necessary developed fully as it all depends upon the economics of power
project, power demand, grid characteristics. If the small hydro station is connected to the grid, the
entire energy generated can be used by the system. For isolated operation load forecast is necessary.

The potential for energy production in a hydropower plant is determined by the following parameters,
which are dependent on the hydrology, topography and design of the power plant:
 The amount of water available;
 Water loss due to flood spill, bypass requirements or leakage;
 The difference in head between upstream intake and downstream outlet;
 Hydraulic losses in water transport due to friction and velocity change; and
 The efficiency in energy conversion of electromechanical equipment.

In addition, some energy losses occur in the water conductor system from diversion point (intake) to
turbine. These losses, called head loss, reduce the head and hence the energy potential for the power

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 plant. These losses can be classified either as friction losses or singular losses. Friction losses depend
mainly on water velocity and the roughness in tunnels, pipelines and penstocks.

The total efficiency of a hydropower plant is determined by the sum of these three loss components.
Hydraulic losses can be reduced by increasing the turbine capacity or by increasing the reservoir
capacity to get better regulation of the flow. Head losses can be reduced by increasing the area of
headrace and tailrace, by decreasing the roughness in these and by avoiding too many changes in flow
velocity and direction. Different turbine types have quite different efficiency profiles when the turbine
discharge deviates from the optimal value.

4. TECHNOLOGY

Head and also installed capacity (size) are often presented as criteria for the classification of
hydropower plants. A broad range of hydropower systems, classified by project type, system, head or
purpose, can be designed to suit particular needs and site-specific conditions. Hydro power in India is
broadly classified in Micro, Mini, Small, Medium and Large Hydro systems based on plan capacity.
Micro is up to and below 100 kW, mini is up to 2 MW, small is up to 25 MW, medium is up to 100
MW and large is above 100 MW. Further hydropower also classified based on head available as Ultra
Low Head is below 3 metres, Low Head is less than 40 metres, Medium Head is above 40 metres and
High head is above 75 metres.

Hydropower plants are often classified in three main categories according to operation and type of
flow. Run-of-river (RoR), storage (reservoir) and pumped storage HPPs all vary from the very small to
the very large scale, depending on the hydrology and topography of the watershed. In addition, there is
a fourth category called in-stream technology, which is a young and less-developed technology.

4.1 Run of River Scheme

Energy and Environment

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 These are hydropower schemes in which the available water is diverted from stream for hydro power
generation (Figure 1). Such a hydropower plant generally includes some short-term storage (hourly,
daily, or weekly), allowing for some adaptations to the demand profile. Run-of-river hydropower
plants are normally operated as base-load power plants. A portion of river water might be diverted to a
channel, pipe line (penstock) to convey the water to hydraulic turbine which is connected to an
electricity generator. Installation of small RoR plants is relatively cheap and has in general only minor
environmental impacts.

Figure 1: Run of river hydropower plant. (Shivasamudram, heritage, India)

4.2 Reservoir

In order to reduce the dependence on the variability of inflow, many hydropower plants comprise
reservoirs where the generating stations are located at the dam toe or further downstream through
tunnel or pipelines as per the electricity or downstream water demand (Figure 2). Such reservoirs are
often situated in river valleys. Most of the time these dams are constructed in the river for desired use
like irrigation, drinking, flood control.

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 Figure 2:Hydropower plants with reservoir. (1,528 MW)Manic-5, Québec, Canada

4.3 Pumped-storage

Pumped-storage plants pump water into an upper storage basin during off-peak hours using surplus
electricity from baseload power plants and reverse flow to generate electricity during the daily peak
load period (Figure 3). It is considered to be one of the most efficient technologies available for energy
storage. The excess electricity in the grid is usually the generation of the thermal power plants or other
renewable energy e.g. wind and solar.

Figure 3: Pumped storage project (Source: IEA, 2000b). (Goldisthal, Thüringen Germany)

4.4 Instream technology using existing facilities

To optimise existing facilities like weirs, barrages, canals or falls, small turbines can be installed for
electricity generation (Figure 4). Smaller falls are also available on cooling water return channels on
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 thermal power stations, drinking water and sewage channel after treatment. These are basically
functioning like a run-of-river scheme

Figure 4: Typical arrangement of instream technology hydropower projects. (Narngawal,, India)

5. COMPONENTS OF HYDRO POWER PLANT

A hydro power plant comprises of following components

 Civil components
 Hydro electrical components comprising of hydro mechanical and hydro electrical equipment

5.1. Civil Components

5.1.1 Diversion structure or reservoir

The function of diversion structure is to divert the water required for power generation to the
sedimentation tank through feeder channel whereas the function of reservoir is to store the water from
surplus period to deficit period. Reservoir or diversion structure may be built on surface (weir
&barrage, inflatable rubber dam). The structure designed should be safe against sliding, overturning
and piping.

5.1.2 Desilting Device

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 For run of river type of schemes, desilting devices are provided in the water conductor systemas
diverted water carries sediments as may damage the turbine parts, penstock and other components due
to abrasion.In the desilting devices the incoming velocity of water is lowered by increasing the cross
sectional area of desilting device thereby effectively allowing the sediment of particle.

5.1.3 Power Channel

The power channel is the one which carries water from source to forebay tank. The main function of
power channel is for water conveyance, and sometimes to take the surge of water. The power channel
may be lined with concrete to prevent the loss of water due to seepage. The shape of the power
channel may be of rectangular or trapezoidal.

5.1.4 Forebay Tank or surge tank

The forebay is a small storage pond located in between power channel and penstocks. It provides
immediate water demand on starting the generating units and required water seal over the penstock
inlet against air entrainment. Surge tank is the storage with possibility of allowing the surge to more
up and down without causing any penstock. Suitable spillway is provided on one side of forebay to
dispose of safely the excess inflows during load rejection.

5.1.5 Penstock

Pressure conduits carrying water from forebay/surge tank to the power house are termed as penstock.
Penstocks are required to bear maximum water pressure including water hammer which occurs due to
sudden closure of inlet valve, they are quite costly and are a very important part of the water conductor
system. The penstock material can be of steel, glass fiber reinforced plastic or concrete.

5.1.6 Power House

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 The functions of the power house are to support and house the generating units (turbine and its
auxiliary units) and their accessories against weather and other human activities. It can be of surface
type or underground type also.

5.1.7 Tail Race Channel

After passing through the turbines, the water is discharged back into the stream through a short
channel called tailrace. The tailrace channel to be designed ion such a way that minimum tail water
level is required to maintain safe suction head for smooth operation of turbine.

5.2 Hydro Mechanical Equipment

Hydro mechanical equipment comprises of Hydro turbine, gear box and gates & valves.

5.2.1 Hydro Turbine

Hydro Turbine is a fluid machine used for converting hydro potential available in water into
mechanical power and then utilize this power for driving the electric generator in power plant.
Turbines can be either reaction or impulse types (Figure 5). The turbines type indicates the manner in
which the water causes the turbine runner to rotate. Reaction turbine operates with their runners fully
flooded and develops torque because of the reaction of water pressure against runner blades. Reaction
turbines are classified as Francis (mixed flow) or axial flow. Axial flow turbines are available with
both fixed blades (Propeller) and variable pitch blades (Kaplan). Both axial flow (Propeller & Kaplan)
and Francis turbines may be mounted either horizontally or vertically. Additionally, Propeller turbines
may be slant mounted.

Second type of turbines are Impulse turbines and operate with their runner in air and convert the
water’s pressure energy into kinetic energy of a jet that impinges onto the runner buckets to develop
torque. Pelton turbines are impulse turbines and installed at high head.
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 Figure 5: Classification of Hydro Turbines

The efficiency of different hydraulic turbines may be seen in figure 6.

Figure 6: Typical efficiency curves for different types of hydropower turbines (Vinogg and Elstad,
2003).

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 5.2.2 Speed Governors

A speed governor is a combination of devices and mechanisms, which detect speed deviation and
convert it into a change in servomotor position. A speed-sensing element detects the deviation from
the set point; this deviation signal is converted and amplified to excite an actuator, hydraulic or
electric, that controls the water flow to the turbine. In a Francis turbine, where there is a reduction in
water flow needed to rotate the wicket-gates. For this, a powerful governor is required to overcome the
hydraulic and frictional forces and to maintain the wicket-gates in a partially closed position or to
close them completely.

Several types of governors are available, varying from old fashioned purely mechanical to mechanical-
hydraulic to electrical-hydraulic and mechanical-electrical.

5.2.3 Speed Increasers

When the turbine and the generator operate at the same speed and can be placed so that their shafts are
in line, direct coupling is the right solution; virtually no power losses are incurred and maintenance is
minimal. Turbine manufactures recommend the type of coupling to be used, either rigid or flexible
although a flexible, coupling that can tolerate certain misalignment, is usually recommended.

In many instances, particularly in low head schemes, turbines run at less than 400 rpm, requiring a
speed increaser to meet the 750-1000 rpm of standard alternators. In the range of powers contemplated
in small hydro schemes, this solution is often more economical than the use of a custom made
alternator.

5.3 HYDRO ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT

It comprises of Electrical generators, power and instrument Transformers, circuit breakers and relays,
etc.,
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 5.3.1 Electrical generator

It converts the mechanical energy available from hydro turbine into electrical energy by means of
electromechanical energy conversion process. Turbine speed governs the design of generator. The
synchronous speed of generator is given by
Ns = 120 f/P
Where P is number of poles and f is the frequency of system

Mostly two types of generators are used in electrical power systems which are

Synchronous generators: They are equipped with a DC electric or permanent magnet excitation system
(rotating or static) associated with a voltage regulator to control the output voltage before the generator
is connected to the grid. They supply the reactive energy required by the power system when the
generator is connected to the grid. Synchronous generators can run isolated from the grid and produce
power since excitation is not grid-dependent

Asynchronous generators: They are simple squirrel-cage induction motors with no possibility of
voltage regulation and running at a speed directly related to system frequency. They draw their
excitation current from the grid, absorbing reactive energy by their own magnetism. Adding a bank of
capacitors can compensate for the absorbed reactive energy. They cannot generate when disconnected
from the grid because are incapable of providing their own excitation current. However, they are used
in very small stand-alone applications as a cheap solution when the required quality of the electricity
supply is not very high.

In synchronous generator speed (Ns) is kept constant whereas in Asynchronous generator speed (Ns) is
varying.

5.3.2 Transformers
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 It is a static device used to transfer electrical energy from its primary to secondary side by stepping up
or steeping down the voltage. Step up transformers are used at power stations to step up the generated
voltage for the purpose of transmission, transmitting higher voltage over long distance has many
advantages like low power transmission loss, reduction in cable and insulator size, low cost and
further.

Step down transformer are used at distribution end to step down the voltage according to requirement
of users.

5.3.3 Instrument transformer

It is a measuring instrument used to measure the high voltage and high current in electrical power
systems. These are categorised into two types which are
 Current transformers
 Voltage transformers

5.3.4 Circuit breakers

It is a protective device which protects the electrical networks from faulty condition. The main
purpose of circuit breaker is to isolate the faulty parts from the networks so that fault is being
localised. Earlier fuse was used now it’s being replaced by circuit breakers.

5.3.5 Relay

It is also a protective device which used to sense the abnormal condition in the electrical system.
Whenever abnormal condition occurs relay operates by closing its contacts to give the signal to circuit
breaker for opening circuit breaker contacts there by fault is isolated.

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 6. Powerhouse

In a hydro power scheme the role of the powerhouse is to protect the electromechanical equipment that
converts the potential energy of water into electricity from the weather and provide a place for
carrying out operation and maintenance activities. The number, type and power of the generating units,
their configuration, the scheme head and the topographical conditions of the site determine the shape
and size of the building. The layout may differ from project to project as per site conditions. The
powerhouse shall comprise of machine hall having main hydro generating equipment (turbine,
governor and generator), service bay to carrying out erection and maintenance activities, control room
having control panels, relays etc. and tailrace for water exit.

Control Room

Machine Hall
Service
Bay

Transformer

Switchyard
Tail race

Following equipment are placed in the powerhouse building:

 Inlet gate or valve

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  Turbine
 Speed increaser (if needed)
 Generator
 Control system
 Condenser, switchgear
 Protection systems
 DC emergency supply
 Power and current transformers etc.
7. Advantages of Hydro Power
 Clean fuel: Hydropower is fueled by water
 The SHPs (Small / mini / micro hydel projects) projects have potential to meet power
requirements of remote and isolated areas - most attractive renewable source of grid quality
power generation
 Conserve fossil fuels
 substitute thermal power
thereby reducing carbon emissions.
 Hydropower relies on the water cycle, which is driven by the sun, thus it's a
renewable power source.
 Hydropower is generally available as needed; engineers can control the flow of
water through the turbines to produce electricity on demand.
 Hydropower plants provide benefits in addition to clean electricity.-
- water supply and
- flood control
- Impoundment hydropower creates reservoirs
that offer a variety of recreational activities : fishing, swimming, and boating.
It requires relatively high initial investment, but has a long lifespan with very low operation
and maintenance costs.

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 7. Disadvantages of Hydro Power

The local social and environmental impacts of hydropower projects vary depending on the project’s
type, size and local conditions. Some impacts such as changes in flow and water quality of river,
barriers to fish migration, impact on biological diversity, displacement of people due to
impoundments. But reservoirs provides, beyond electricity supply, multiple beneficial services. While
lifecycle assessments indicate very low carbon emissions, there is currently no consensus on the issue
of land use change-related net emissions from reservoirs.
In the past, hydropower has acted as a catalyst for economic and social development by providing both
energy and water management services, and it can continue to do so in the future. Hydropower can
serve both in large, centralized and small, isolated grids, and small-scale hydropower is an option for
rural electrification.

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