2.

8 / KEY TERMS, REVIEW QUESTIONS, AND PROBLEMS 61

main memory multicore SPEC

many integrated core (MIC) multiplexor speed metric
MIPS rate opcode stored-program concept
memory address register original equipment upward compatible
(MAR) manufacturer (OEM) von Neumann machine
memory buffer register program counter (PC) wafer
(MBR) rate metric word
microprocessor ratio

Review Questions
2.1 What is a stored program computer?
2.2 What are the four main components of any general-purpose computer?
2.3 At the integrated circuit level, what are the three principal constituents of a computer
system?
2.4 Explain Moore’s law.
2.5 List and explain the key characteristics of a computer family.
2.6 What is the key distinguishing feature of a microprocessor?

Problems
2.1 You are to write an IAS program to compute the results of the following equation.
N
Y = aX
X=1

Assume that the result of the computation does not arithmetic overflow and that X, Y,
and N are positive integers with N 1. Note: The IAS did not have assembly language
only machine language.
a. Use the equation Sum(Y)= N(N+1)/2 when writing the IAS program.
b. Do it the “hard way,” without using the equation from part (a).
2.2 a. On the IAS, what would the machine code instruction look like to load the
contents of memory address 2 to the accumulator?
b. How many trips to memory does the CPU need to make to complete this instruc-
tion during the instruction cycle?
2.3 On the IAS, describe in English the process that the CPU must undertake to read a
value from memory and to write a value to memory in terms of what is put into the
MAR, MBR, address bus, data bus, and control bus.
2.4 Given the memory contents of the IAS computer shown below,
Address Contents
08A 010FA210FB
08B 010FA0F08D
08C 020FA210FB
show the assembly language code for the program, starting at address 08A. Explain
what this program does.
2.5 In Figure 2.3, indicate the width, in bits, of each data path (e.g., between AC and
ALU).
108 CHAPTER 3 / A TOP-LEVEL VIEW OF COMPUTER FUNCTION

3.7 RECOMMENDED READING

[SING10] provides a good overview of QPI. For a thorough discussion, see [MADD09].
[KOLB05] is a good overview of PCIe. The clearest book-length description of PCIe is
[WILE03].

KOLB05 Kolbehdari, M., et al. “The Emergence of PCI Express* in the Next Genera-
tion of Mobile Platforms.” Intel Technology Journal, February 2005.
MADD09 Maddox, R., et al. Weaving High Performance Multiprocessor Fabric: Archi-
tectural Insights to the Intel QuickPath Interconnect. Hillsboro, OR: Intel Press, 2009.
SING10 Singh, G., et al. “The Feeding of High-Performance Processor Cores—Quickpath
Interconnects and the New I/O Hubs.” Intel Technology Journal, September 2010.
WILE03 Wilen, A.; Schade, J.; and Thronburg, R. Introduction to PCI Express—A
Hardware and Software Developers Guide. Hillsboro, OR: Intel Press, 2003.

3.8 KEY TERMS, REVIEW QUESTIONS, AND PROBLEMS

Key Terms

address bus distributed arbitration memory buffer register (MBR)

address lines error control function multilane distribution
arbitration execute cycle Packets
asynchronous timing fetch cycle PCI Express (PCIe)
balanced transmission flit peripheral component
bus flow control function interconnect (PCI)
bus width instruction cycle phit
centralized arbitration interrupt QuickPath Interconnect
control lines interrupt handler (QPI)
data bus interrupt service routine (ISR) root complex
data lines lane synchronous timing
differential signaling memory address register system bus
disabled interrupt (MAR)

Review Questions
3.1 What general categories of functions are specified by computer instructions?
3.2 List and briefly define the possible states that define an instruction execution.
3.3 List and briefly define two approaches to dealing with multiple interrupts.
3.4 What types of transfers must a computer’s interconnection structure (e.g., bus) support?
3.5 What is the benefit of using a multiple-bus architecture compared to a single-bus
architecture?
3.6 List and briefly define the QPI protocol layers.
3.7 List and briefly define the PCIe protocol layers.
 4.7 / KEY TERMS, REVIEW QUESTIONS, AND PROBLEMS 147

4.7 KEY TERMS, REVIEW QUESTIONS, AND PROBLEMS

Key Terms

access time hit ratio replacement algorithm

associative mapping instruction cache secondary memory
secondary memory L1 cache sequential access
cache hit L2 cache set-associative mapping
cache line L3 cache spatial locality
cache memory line split cache
cache miss locality tag
cache set logical cache temporal locality
data cache memory hierarchy unified cache
direct access miss virtual address
direct mapping multilevel cache virtual cache
high-performance computing physical address write back
(HPC) physical cache write through
hit random access

Review Questions
4.1 What are the differences among sequential access, direct access, and random access?
4.2 What is the general relationship among access time, memory cost, and capacity?
4.3 How does the principle of locality relate to the use of multiple memory levels?
4.4 What are the differences among direct mapping, associative mapping, and set-associa-
tive mapping?
4.5 For a direct-mapped cache, a main memory address is viewed as consisting of three
fields. List and define the three fields.
4.6 For an associative cache, a main memory address is viewed as consisting of two fields.
List and define the two fields.
4.7 For a set-associative cache, a main memory address is viewed as consisting of three
fields. List and define the three fields.
4.8 What is the distinction between spatial locality and temporal locality?
4.9 In general, what are the strategies for exploiting spatial locality and temporal locality?

Problems
4.1 A set-associative cache consists of 64 lines, or slots, divided into four-line sets. Main
memory contains 4K blocks of 128 words each. Show the format of main memory
addresses.
4.2 A two-way set-associative cache has lines of 16 bytes and a total size of 8 Kbytes. The
64-Mbyte main memory is byte addressable. Show the format of main memory addresses.
4.3 For the hexadecimal main memory addresses 111111, 666666, BBBBBB, show the
following information, in hexadecimal format:
a. Tag, Line, and Word values for a direct-mapped cache, using the format of
Figure 4.10
b. Tag and Word values for an associative cache, using the format of Figure 4.12
c. Tag, Set, and Word values for a two-way set-associative cache, using the format of
Figure 4.15
 5.5 / KEY TERMS, REVIEW QUESTIONS, AND PROBLEMS 181

CUPP01 Cuppu, V., et al. “High Performance DRAMS in Workstation Environments.”

IEEE Transactions on Computers, November 2001.
JACO08 Jacob, B.; Ng, S.; and Wang, D. Memory Systems: Cache, DRAM, Disk.
Boston: Morgan Kaufmann, 2008.
KEET01 Keeth, B., and Baker, R. DRAM Circuit Design: A Tutorial. Piscataway, NJ:
IEEE Press, 2001.
MCEL85 McEliece, R. “The Reliability of Computer Memories.” Scientific American,
January 1985.
PRIN97 Prince, B. Semiconductor Memories. New York: Wiley, 1997.
PRIN02 Prince, B. Emerging Memories: Technologies and Trends. Norwell, MA:
Kluwer, 2002.
SHAR97 Sharma, A. Semiconductor Memories: Technology, Testing, and Reliability.
New York: IEEE Press, 1997.
SHAR03 Sharma, A. Advanced Semiconductor Memories: Architectures, Designs, and
Applications. New York: IEEE Press, 2003.

5.5 KEY TERMS, REVIEW QUESTIONS, AND PROBLEMS

Key Terms

cache DRAM (CDRAM) Hamming code single-error-correcting

dynamic RAM (DRAM) hard failure (SEC) code
electrically erasable nonvolatile memory single-error-correcting,
programmable ROM programmable ROM double-error-detecting
(EEPROM) (PROM) (SEC-DED) code
erasable programmable RamBus DRAM soft error
ROM (EPROM) (RDRAM) static RAM (SRAM)
error correcting code read-mostly memory synchronous DRAM
(ECC) read-only memory (SDRAM)
error correction (ROM) syndrome
flash memory semiconductor memory volatile memory

Review Questions
5.1 What are the key properties of semiconductor memory?
5.2 What are two interpretations of the term random-access memory?
5.3 What is the difference between DRAM and SRAM in terms of application?
5.4 What is the difference between DRAM and SRAM in terms of characteristics such as
speed, size, and cost?
5.5 Explain why one type of RAM is considered to be analog and the other digital.
5.6 What are some applications for ROM?
5.7 What are the differences among EPROM, EEPROM, and flash memory?
5.8 Explain the function of each pin in Figure 5.4b.
182 CHAPTER 5 / INTERNAL MEMORY

5.9 What is a parity bit?

5.10 How is the syndrome for the Hamming code interpreted?
5.11 How does SDRAM differ from ordinary DRAM?

Problems
5.1 Suggest reasons why RAMs traditionally have been organized as only 1 bit per chip
whereas ROMs are usually organized with multiple bits per chip.
5.2 Consider a dynamic RAM that must be given a refresh cycle 64 times per ms. Each
refresh operation requires 150 ns; a memory cycle requires 250 ns. What percentage of
the memory’s total operating time must be given to refreshes?
5.3 Figure 5.16 shows a simplified timing diagram for a DRAM read operation over a bus.
The access time is considered to last from t1 to t2. Then there is a recharge time, lasting
from t2 to t3, during which the DRAM chips will have to recharge before the proces-
sor can access them again.
a. Assume that the access time is 60 ns and the recharge time is 40 ns. What is the
memory cycle time? What is the maximum data rate this DRAM can sustain, as-
suming a 1-bit output?
b. Constructing a 32-bit wide memory system using these chips yields what data
transfer rate?
5.4 Figure 5.6 indicates how to construct a module of chips that can store 1 MByte based
on a group of four 256-Kbyte chips. Let’s say this module of chips is packaged as a
single 1-Mbyte chip, where the word size is 1 byte. Give a high-level chip diagram of
how to construct an 8-Mbyte computer memory using eight 1-Mbyte chips. Be sure to
show the address lines in your diagram and what the address lines are used for.
5.5 On a typical Intel 8086-based system, connected via system bus to DRAM memory,
for a read operation, RAS is activated by the trailing edge of the Address Enable
signal (Figure 3.19). However, due to propagation and other delays, RAS does not go
active until 50 ns after Address Enable returns to a low. Assume the latter occurs in
the middle of the second half of state T1 (somewhat earlier than in Figure 3.19). Data
are read by the processor at the end of T3. For timely presentation to the processor,
however, data must be provided 60 ns earlier by memory. This interval accounts for

Address
Row address Column address
lines

RAS

CAS

R/W

Data
Data out valid
lines
t1 t2 t3

Figure 5.16 Simplified DRAM Read Timing

218 CHAPTER 6 / EXTERNAL MEMORY

CHEN94 Chen, P.; Lee, E.; Gibson, G.; Katz, R.; and Patterson, D. “RAID: High-
Performance, Reliable Secondary Storage.” ACM Computing Surveys, June 1994.
CHEN96 Chen, S., and Towsley, D. “A Performance Evaluation of RAID Architec-
tures.” IEEE Transactions on Computers, October 1996.
FRIE96 Friedman, M. “RAID Keeps Going and Going and…” IEEE Spectrum, April
1996.
HAUE08 Haeusser, B., et al. IBM System Storage Tape Library Guide for Open
Systems. IBM Redbook SG24-5946-05, October 2007. ibm.com/redbooks
JACO08 Jacob, B.; Ng, S.; and Wang, D. Memory Systems: Cache, DRAM, Disk.
Boston: Morgan Kaufmann, 2008.
MANS97 Mansuripur, M., and Sincerbox, G. “Principles and Techniques of Optical
Data Storage.” Proceedings of the IEEE, November 1997.
OKLO08 Oklobdzija, V., ed. Digital Design and Fabrication. Boca Raton, FL: CRC
Press, 2008.
OSUN11 Osuna, A., et al. IBM System Storage Tape Library Guide for Open Systems.
IBM Redbook SG24-5946-07, June 2011.
PAVA97 Pavan, P., et al. “Flash Memory Cells–An Overview.” Proceedings of the
IEEE, August 1997.

6.7 KEY TERMS, REVIEW QUESTIONS, AND PROBLEMS

Key Terms

access time DVD-RW optical memory

Blu-ray fixed-head disk pit
CD flash memory platter
CD-R floppy disk RAID
CD-ROM gap removable disk
CD-RW hard disk drive (HDD) rotational delay
constant angular velocity head sector
(CAV) land seek time
constant linear velocity magnetic disk serpentine recording
(CLV) magnetic tape solid state drive (SSD)
cylinder magnetoresistive striped data
DVD movable-head disk substrate
DVD-R multiple zoned recording track
DVD-ROM nonremovable disk transfer time

Review Questions
6.1 What are the advantages of using a glass substrate for a magnetic disk?
6.2 How are data written onto a magnetic disk?
6.3 How are data read from a magnetic disk?
6.4 Explain the difference between a simple CAV system and a multiple zoned recording
system.
6.5 Define the terms track, cylinder, and sector.
6.6 What is the typical disk sector size?
 6.7 / KEY TERMS, REVIEW QUESTIONS, AND PROBLEMS 219
6.7 Define the terms seek time, rotational delay, access time, and transfer time.
6.8 What common characteristics are shared by all RAID levels?
6.9 Briefly define the seven RAID levels.
6.10 Explain the term striped data.
6.11 How is redundancy achieved in a RAID system?
6.12 In the context of RAID, what is the distinction between parallel access and indepen-
dent access?
6.13 What is the difference between CAV and CLV?
6.14 What differences between a CD and a DVD account for the larger capacity of the latter?
6.15 Explain serpentine recording.

Problems
6.1 Consider a disk with N tracks numbered from 0 to (N - 1) and assume that requested
sectors are distributed randomly and evenly over the disk. We want to calculate the
average number of tracks traversed by a seek.
a. First, calculate the probability of a seek of length j when the head is currently
positioned over track t. Hint: This is a matter of determining the total number of
combinations, recognizing that all track positions for the destination of the seek
are equally likely.
b. Next, calculate the probability of a seek of length K. Hint: this involves the sum-
ming over all possible combinations of movements of K tracks.
c. Calculate the average number of tracks traversed by a seek, using the formula for
expected value
N-1
E[x] = a i * Pr[x = i]
i=0

n n(n + 1) n n(n + 1)(2n + 1)

Hint: Use the equalities: a i = ; a i2 = .
i=1 2 i=1 6
d. Show that for large values of N, the average number of tracks traversed by a seek
approaches N/3.
6.2 Define the following for a disk system:
ts = seek time; average time to position head over track
r = rotation speed of the disk, in revolutions per second
n = number of bits per sector
N = capacity of a track, in bits
tA = time to access a sector
Develop a formula for tA as a function of the other parameters.
6.3 Consider a magnetic disk drive with 8 surfaces, 512 tracks per surface, and 64 sectors
per track. Sector size is 1 kB. The average seek time is 8 ms, the track-to-track access
time is 1.5 ms, and the drive rotates at 3600 rpm. Successive tracks in a cylinder can be
read without head movement.
a. What is the disk capacity?
b. What is the average access time? Assume this file is stored in successive sectors
and tracks of successive cylinders, starting at sector 0, track 0, of cylinder i.
c. Estimate the time required to transfer a 5-MB file.
d. What is the burst transfer rate?
6.4 Consider a single-platter disk with the following parameters: rotation speed: 7200 rpm;
number of tracks on one side of platter: 30,000; number of sectors per track: 600; seek
time: one ms for every hundred tracks traversed. Let the disk receive a request to
access a random sector on a random track and assume the disk head starts at track 0.
a. What is the average seek time?
b. What is the average rotational latency?
 7.10 / KEY TERMS, REVIEW QUESTIONS, AND PROBLEMS 261

Review Questions
7.1 List three broad classifications of external, or peripheral, devices.
7.2 What is the International Reference Alphabet?
7.3 What are the major functions of an I/O module?
7.4 List and briefly define three techniques for performing I/O.
7.5 What is the difference between memory-mapped I/O and isolated I/O?
7.6 When a device interrupt occurs, how does the processor determine which device
issued the interrupt?
7.7 When a DMA module takes control of a bus, and while it retains control of the bus,
what does the processor do?

Problems
7.1 On a typical microprocessor, a distinct I/O address is used to refer to the I/O data
registers and a distinct address for the control and status registers in an I/O controller
for a given device. Such registers are referred to as ports. In the Intel 8088, two I/O
instruction formats are used. In one format, the 8-bit opcode specifies an I/O opera-
tion; this is followed by an 8-bit port address. Other I/O opcodes imply that the port
address is in the 16-bit DX register. How many ports can the 8088 address in each I/O
addressing mode? .
7.2 A similar instruction format is used in the Zilog Z8000 microprocessor family. In this
case, there is a direct port addressing capability, in which a 16-bit port address is part
of the instruction, and an indirect port addressing capability, in which the instruction
references one of the 16-bit general purpose registers, which contains the port ad-
dress. How many ports can the Z8000 address in each I/O addressing mode?
7.3 The Z8000 also includes a block I/O transfer capability that, unlike DMA, is under the
direct control of the processor. The block transfer instructions specify a port address
register (Rp), a count register (Rc), and a destination register (Rd). Rd contains the
main memory address at which the first byte read from the input port is to be stored. Rc
is any of the 16-bit general purpose registers. How large a data block can be transferred?
7.4 Consider a microprocessor that has a block I/O transfer instruction such as that found
on the Z8000. Following its first execution, such an instruction takes five clock cycles
to re-execute. However, if we employ a nonblocking I/O instruction, it takes a total
of 20 clock cycles for fetching and execution. Calculate the increase in speed with the
block I/O instruction when transferring blocks of 128 bytes.
7.5 A system is based on an 8-bit microprocessor and has two I/O devices. The I/O con-
trollers for this system use separate control and status registers. Both devices handle
data on a 1-byte-at-a-time basis. The first device has two status lines and three control
lines. The second device has three status lines and four control lines.
a. How many 8-bit I/O control module registers do we need for status reading and
control of each device?
b. What is the total number of needed control module registers given that the first
device is an output-only device?
c. How many distinct addresses are needed to control the two devices?
7.6 For programmed I/O, Figure 7.5 indicates that the processor is stuck in a wait loop
doing status checking of an I/O device. To increase efficiency, the I/O software could
be written so that the processor periodically checks the status of the device. If the
device is not ready, the processor can jump to other tasks. After some timed interval,
the processor comes back to check status again.
a. Consider the above scheme for outputting data one character at a time to a
printer that operates at 10 characters per second (cps). What will happen if its
status is scanned every 200 ms?