UNIT 4 FOUNDATIONS

TEXT 1

The structure system consists of a superstructure and a substructure.

The portion of a building that extends above the ground level outside it is
called the superstructure .The portion below the outside ground level is
called the substructure. The part of the substructure that distributes
building loads to the ground is known as foundations. They are usually
made of reinforced concrete.
5
Two important parts of the foundation are the footings and the
foundation walls. The footing is the first part of the foundation to be laid. A
footing is usually made of concrete. It is placed below the foundation wall
because it is wider than the wall. It helps distribute the weight of the
structure over a wider area. The foundation walls are built on top of the
footings. They spread the weight of the superstructure to the footings. If the 10
building has a basement, the foundation walls are the basement walls.
Some foundation walls are made from poured concrete. In this
process forms (molds) for them are placed on top of the footings.
Sometimes steel rods are added to give the walls strength. Then concrete
is poured down a chute from a truck into the form. After a couple of days, 15
the concrete is hard and the forms are removed.
Concrete blocks can also be used to make foundation walls. This type
of wall is built by masons, or bricklayers. The blocks are held together by
mortar, a type of concrete paste. Block foundations are less costly than
poured foundations.
All foundation walls should be waterproofed. This prevents damage
from rain, especially in basements. 20
 There are two basic types of foundations, shallow and deep. Also,
there are several varieties of each type. Shallow foundations include spread
continuous and trapped footing, mats, or, compensated rafts. The footing
under a wall is called a continuous spread footing. A slender structural
member, such as a column, is usually seated on an individual spread
footing. When the soil is too weak, however, the spread footings for columns 2
become very large; it is often economical to combine the footings into a 5
single footing under the whole building. Such a footing is called raft, or mat
footing or a floating foundation.
Deep foundations include drilled caissons, or piers, and many
varieties of driven and cast-in-place concrete piles. When the surface soil
stratum is too weak to support the structure, piles and piers may be used to 3
transfer the weight to stronger substrata. Concrete piles are either pre-cast 0
or cast in situ. The pre-cast type is formed of steel bars set in concrete,
which is then driven into the soil.
To construct the cast in situ type, a hole is first drilled into the soil at
the desired location and then filled with concrete. It may or may not be
reinforced. This type is often preferred because it takes less time and 3
requires no molding. 5
TEXT 2
 FOUNDATIONS

When a structure is to be erected, a foundation is needed to carry the weight of the structure to
the stratum of soil on which it rests, called the foundation bed. Depending on the locality, one of
the several types of foundation beds may be used. Although any kind of foundation bed will
settle somewhat, rock is usually preferred because it will support bearing pressures up to 15
tones per square foot. Gravel will support loads of 4 tons per square foot. Sand will support an
equal weight if the lateral pressure can be held back. Clay, if it can be kept dry, will support 2
tons per square foot.

The foundation itself, which is usually made of reinforced concrete, may be a

single unit or separate units. A mat, or a raft, which is a single slab over the
entire foundation bed, is often used. A bearing wall around the outer limits of
the structure is supported by a continuous footing. Separate footings may be
used to support columns.

When the surface soil stratum is too weak to support the structure, piles and piers may be used to
transfer the weight to stronger sub-strata. Concrete piles are either pre-cast or cast-in-situ. The
pre-cast type is formed of steel bars set in concrete, which is then driven into the soil. To
construct the cast-in-situ, a hole is first drilled into the soil at the desired location and then filled
with concrete. It may or may not be reinforced. This type is often preferred because it takes less
time and requires no molding.

TEXT 3

FOUNDATIONS
In modern building construction, foundations are usually of concrete, and must be carried down
to a layer of earth or rock strong enough to bear the weight of the building and its contents and to
withstand the force of the wind blowing on surfaces of the building. The nature of the ground has
to be studied and the weight it can safely carry has to be calculated most carefully, because if a
very great load is applied, the ground will sink, or “settle”, causing the building to crack. In some
countries, the special stresses caused by earthquakes must also be allowed for. Rock, coarse
sand, and gravels normally provide good support, but finer soils, such as clays, may present
considerable problems. The clay subsoil of London, for example, is one of the factors that limits
the height and size of buildings there; whereas in NewYork, where the ground consists of solid
rock, skyscrapers can be built.

The main types of concrete foundations are independent, strip, raft and pile. Independent
foundations are used to support columns or piers which are evenly spaced and unequally loaded.
A pad of concrete, plain or reinforced, is placed under each column or pier, the base of the pad
extending far enough in all directions to spread the loads evenly over the ground. Strip
foundations are used when a row of columns is so closely spaced that independent foundations
would nearly meet. When the columns are both near together and regularly spaced, and carry
nearly equal loads, raft (sometimes called “slab”) foundations extending the whole length and
breadth of a building, are used instead of strip foundations. The raft may be a thick slab of mass
concrete, or a thin slab of reinforced concrete, laid between lines of concrete beams joining the
feet of the columns. A raft foundation is suitable in very soft ground, for it enables the building
to float as a whole, where separate, independent foundation might sink by unequal amounts.
Piles are used to take the weight of the building when it is impossible to dig down to the solid
layer of earth, either because the ground is water-logged or because there is a very great depth of
poorsoil. Piles are solid lengths of timber, steel, or reinforced concrete, usually from 20 to 80 feet
long, driven into the ground by heavy steam hammer. Sometimes, hollow steel tubes are used,
being driven into the ground in the same way as solid piles and afterwards filled with concrete.
Before the concrete hardens, the tubes are withdrawn and can be used again.