Human Dimensions of Wildlife

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The Relationship Between Religion and Attitudes

Toward Large Carnivores in Northern India?

Saloni Bhatia, Stephen Mark Redpath, Kulbhushansingh Suryawanshi &

Charudutt Mishra

To cite this article: Saloni Bhatia, Stephen Mark Redpath, Kulbhushansingh Suryawanshi
& Charudutt Mishra (2016): The Relationship Between Religion and Attitudes
Toward Large Carnivores in Northern India?, Human Dimensions of Wildlife, DOI:
10.1080/10871209.2016.1220034

To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10871209.2016.1220034

Published online: 23 Aug 2016.

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HUMAN DIMENSIONS OF WILDLIFE
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10871209.2016.1220034

The Relationship Between Religion and Attitudes Toward

Large Carnivores in Northern India?
Saloni Bhatiaa,b,c, Stephen Mark Redpathd, Kulbhushansingh Suryawanshia,b,
and Charudutt Mishraa,b
a
Nature Conservation Foundation, Mysore, India; bSnow Leopard Trust, Seattle, Washington, USA; cManipal
University, Manipal, India; dInstitute of Biological and Environmental Sciences, University of Aberdeen,
Aberdeen, United Kingdom

ABSTRACT KEYWORDS
Evidence suggests that religion is an important driver of peoples’ Buddhism; human–wildlife
attitudes toward nature, but the link between religion and carnivore conflict; Islam; religion;
conservation is poorly understood. We examined peoples’ attitudes Trans-Himalaya
in Buddhist (n = 83) and Muslim communities (n = 111) toward snow
leopards (Panthera uncia) and wolves (Canis lupus) in Ladakh, India.
We found that the effect of religion on attitudes was statistically
nonsignificant, and was tempered by gender, education, and aware-
ness of wildlife laws. Even though religion by itself was not an
indication of an individual’s attitude toward large carnivores, the
extent to which he/she practiced it (i.e., religiosity) had a positive
correlation with pro-carnivore attitudes in the case of Buddhist but
not Muslim communities. Our findings indicate that it may be useful
to integrate locally relevant religious philosophies into conservation
practice. However, the emphasis of conservation messaging should
vary, stressing environmental stewardship in the case of Islam, and
human–wildlife interdependence in the case of Buddhism.

Introduction
Wildlife conservation and human welfare can often be at odds with each other. On the one
hand, wildlife impacts in the form of loss of life, crops, and livestock cause economic and
emotional hardship. On the other hand, populations of the species that are responsible for
negative impacts are declining rapidly as a result of retaliatory killing, hunting, and
indirect human actions such as habitat alteration (Madden, 2008; Madden & McQuinn,
2014; Woodroffe, Thirgood, & Rabinowitz, 2005). A global review of the status of large
carnivores reported that of the 31 species belonging to five families, 61% had been
categorized by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) as threatened
(critically endangered, endangered, or vulnerable) (Ripple et al., 2014).
Traditionally, any interaction that has negative repercussions on wild animals or
people is termed human–wildlife conflict (HWC) (Madden, 2004). Recent studies,
however, have debated that the term human–wildlife conflict incorrectly attributes
conflict to wildlife when in reality the friction occurs between stakeholders with
differing interests and goals (Peterson, Birckhead, Leong, Peterson, & Peterson, 2010;

CONTACT Saloni Bhatia saloni@ncf-india.org Nature Conservation Foundation, 3076/5, IV Cross, Gokulam Park,
Mysore 570002, India.
© 2016 Crown Copyright
2 S. BHATIA ET AL.

Redpath, Bhatia, & Young, 2015). Research has addressed the ecological and human
dimensions of living with predators to devise solutions that can minimize impacts on
humans as well as carnivores (Dickman, 2010; Inskip & Zimmermann, 2009). Studies
examining the factors that influence attitudes toward damage-causing wildlife suggest
that people from a Judeo-Christian background, women, parents, older and less edu-
cated individuals, and those who perceived greater risk from carnivores tended to hold
more negative attitudes toward carnivores (Bagchi & Mishra, 2006; Hazzah, Mulder, &
Frank, 2009; Røskaft, Händel, Bjerke, & Kaltenborn, 2007; Suryawanshi, Bhatnagar,
Redpath, & Mishra, 2013).
Religion is considered to be an important driver of peoples’ attitudes toward large
carnivores but its relationship with human behavior may be mediated by factors such as
social norms, laws, political situations at the level of the community, socioeconomics, fear, and
perceptions of risk (Goldman, De Pinho, & Perry, 2010; Luke, 2012). Religious superstition led
to state-sponsored extermination of the Zanzibar leopard (Panthera pardus adersi) that was
perceived to be associated with witchcraft and sorcery (Walsh & Goldman, 2015). Hazzah
et al. (2009) note that the Maasai who attended the Roman Catholic Church in Kenya were
more tolerant toward carnivores possibly owing to the pro-environmental sermons. Similarly,
Li et al. (2013) showed how Buddhist monasteries played an important part in aiding snow
leopard (Panthera uncia) conservation in the Tibetan Plateau. Religion can thus have a
positive or negative influence on peoples’ behavior toward wildlife.
The snow leopard is an endangered carnivore found in the mountains of Central and South
Asia. It preys on livestock, causing serious economic losses to people (Mishra, 1997; Namgail,
Fox, & Bhatnagar, 2007). Retaliatory killing has been identified as a key threat to the snow
leopard population (Mishra et al., 2003; Mishra, Bagchi, Namgail, & Bhatnagar, 2010). Li and
Lu (2014) estimated that 11 snow leopards (1.2% of the estimated population) were killed
annually between 2000 and 2013 in the 360,000 km2 area of Sanjiangyuan, China.
The wolf (Canis lupus) is also responsible for livestock depredation and often is not
tolerated by the affected people (Suryawanshi et al., 2013). Mishra (1997) described how a
Buddhist community in Spiti Valley, India, for example, identified wolf dens, captured the
litter, and displayed the wolf pups in the village before killing them (Mishra, 1997). In and
around the Great Gobi B Strictly Protected Area in Mongolia, 184 wolves were killed in a
period of two and half years (from July 2002 to February 2005), and products (frozen
carcasses, skins, heads) from an estimated 2,000 wolves were traded in border markets
during the same period (Kaczensky, Enkhsaikhan, Ganbaatar, & Walzer, 2008).
Local perceptions of snow leopards and wolves vary, as does their behavior toward them
(Suryawanshi, Bhatia, Bhatnagar, Redpath, & Mishra, 2014). While these animals are often
persecuted, many communities also exhibit tolerance despite the economic and psychological
hardships (Mishra et al., 2003). The relative tolerance of communities toward the snow leopard
in Spiti and Ladakh regions in India has been attributed partly to Buddhism and perceptions of
nonviolence and compassion toward all sentient beings (Bagchi & Mishra, 2006; Mishra, 1997).
However, a formal assessment of how religion influences attitudes toward snow leopards and
wolves, the two predominant carnivores of Asian mountains, has not been undertaken. Similarly,
the relationship between religion and other socioeconomic variables in influencing attitudes
toward predators has not received adequate attention.
This article explored the relationship between religion and the attitudes of local people toward
the snow leopard and the wolf in the Indian Trans-Himalaya. We examined attitudes in villages
 HUMAN DIMENSIONS OF WILDLIFE 3

that followed either Islam or Buddhism, two widely practiced faiths across the global distribu-
tional range of the snow leopard.

Human relationship with animals with reference to religion

Islam propagates the idea of an all-powerful creator (Allah) who has made human beings the
trustees of the earth. Humans are called upon to have mercy on nonhumans, and are required
to tend Allah’s creations, rather than engage in irresponsible exploitation (Kemmerer, 2011). A
devout Muslim is expected to tread the path of virtue. Allah scrutinizes an individual’s actions
and he/she is accordingly directed to Heaven or Hell on the day of reckoning.
Buddhism, on the other hand, postulates a theory of dependent origination in which all beings
(including humans) function only in relation to others around them and therefore, there is no
independent existence (Yamamoto & Kuwahara, 2006). The goal of Buddhism is to attain
enlightenment by ending suffering and ignorance that arise in the realms of existence.
Empathy, compassion and nonviolence toward all beings (not just humans) are important
moral virtues that attract good karma, which can help attain enlightenment and liberation
from the material world.
We expected the influences of the two religions on attitudes toward snow leopards and wolves
to vary. Therefore, we also interacted with religious and academic scholars to understand their
interpretation of the two faiths in relation to nature and wildlife. We considered conservation
options based on a better understanding of the nuances of the two faiths, the socioeconomic
influences, and the cultures in which they are situated.

Methods
Study area
Ladakh is located in the State of Jammu and Kashmir in India. Historically, Ladakh used
to be an important trade link between Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh and Tibet, resulting in
a confluence of cultures (Rizvi, 1990). Agriculture and livestock rearing have been the
primary occupations of Ladakhis.
Located on the border with China and Pakistan, Ladakh has a strong military presence,
which has provided a market for local agriculture produce, employment opportunities,
facilitated construction of roads, and improved connectivity (Bray, 2007). Ladakh was opened
to tourists in 1974, which resulted in the rapid construction of tourist infrastructure (hotels,
restaurants, homestays, transportation). Tourism and the army have brought about many
socioeconomic and cultural changes in the region (Dollfus, 2012). Due to the presence of
alternate livelihoods, several villages have recently outsourced herding to migratory herders.

Religion
People of Ladakh mainly practice Islam or Tibetan Buddhism (Gupta, 2012; Rizvi, 1990).
The predominant Islamic sect that Ladakhi Muslims adhere to is the Twelver Shi’i sect,
which believes in the spiritual and political authority of 12 divinely ordained leaders
(known as Imams), the last of whom is believed to be in occultation (Gupta, 2014). The
majority of Tibetan Buddhist followers belong to the Mahayana school. According to
4 S. BHATIA ET AL.

Mahayana traditions, individuals who attain enlightenment (bodhisattvas) can choose to

be reborn into the realms of existence to alleviate the suffering of other sentient beings,
and help them to attain liberation (nirvana) (Kemmerer, 2011).
Ladakh was split into two districts in 1979—Leh, inhabited predominantly by Buddhists, and
Kargil, inhabited predominantly by Muslims. Our study sites were located in Western Ladakh in
two administrative blocks—Shakar-Chiktan (Kargil district) comprising 11 revenue villages, and
Khalsi (Leh district) comprising 17 revenue villages (Figure 1). The two blocks were chosen based
on their similarity in dependence on livestock, their proximity to each other, and topography
(contiguous valleys). Villages in Khalsi block included Takmachik, Domkhar, Skurbuchan,
Lehdo, and Achinathang. Villages in Shakar-Chiktan block included hamlets in Chiktan,
Haknis, and Khangral. Villages that had mixed populations of Buddhist and Muslims were
not included because these individuals reflected a combination of the two religions as well as
ancient animistic practices (Bray, 2007).

Understanding religions
Initially, 20 semi-structured interviews were conducted with academic and religious
scholars. Interviews focused on understanding the worldview proffered by the two faiths,
their treatment of wild animals/nature, as well as complexities of both the faiths with

Figure 1. Villages in Western Ladakh where the relationship between religion and peoples’ attitudes
toward snow leopards and wolves was examined. Domkhar, Takmachik, Lehdo, Skurbuchan, and
Achinathang are Buddhist villages, whereas Haknis, Chiktan, and Khangral are Muslim villages.
 HUMAN DIMENSIONS OF WILDLIFE 5

respect to the idea of sin, the tension between religious philosophy and practice, and
socioeconomic, political and historical influences on Ladakhi culture. The scholars were
based in Ladakh and possessed an understanding of the respective religions, as well as the
historic and cultural changes experienced by the region. They were chosen based on
recommendations by knowledgeable individuals and organizations.

Understanding attitudes
A pilot survey of 50 interviewees was conducted outside our main study site in Panamic
block, in the Nubra valley. Questions that were considered vague, or difficult to understand
during the pilot were dropped in the final version. The revised questionnaire was adminis-
tered to 194 randomly chosen individuals in every third household in the village. The first
available adult (above 18 years) in the house was approached for the interview, but an
attempt was made to get a roughly equal representation of both genders (44% females, and
56% males). The questions were translated into the interviewees’ preferred language
(Ladakhi or Urdu) but their responses were recorded by the interviewer in English.
In all, individuals from 15% (n = 83) of the households in the three villages in Shakar-
Chiktan block and 23% (n = 111) of the households in the five villages in Khalsi block
were interviewed. Twenty people in the surveyed villages of Shakar-Chiktan did not wish
to be interviewed. In a fourth village (Samrah) in Shakar-Chiktan, 40 people declined to be
interviewed, and the data from this village were excluded.
We approached individuals, explaining the purpose of the research, and seeking oral
consent to conduct the interview. We eased them into a conversation by showing them
pictures of the snow leopard and the wolf, and enquiring about their encounters with the
carnivores to ensure there was no confusion regarding the identification of the two
predators. We then asked questions regarding their attitudes towards the predators, first
the snow leopard and then wolf or vice versa. Some questions (e.g., “Do you think this
animal benefits the people of Ladakh?”) were also followed up with a request to elaborate
on the reasons. We also asked questions to understand people’s willingness to support
carnivore conservation and their reasons (or lack thereof) for the support.
Responses to the six attitude questions were coded as −1 (negative) or +1 (positive).
The overall attitude score thus ranged from 6 (most positive) to −6 (most negative). The
qualitative questions that required interviewees to elaborate on their response were
analyzed separately (i.e., not included in the attitude score).
We collected information on explanatory variables that have been reported to influence
attitudes toward wildlife (Hazzah et al., 2009; Kleiven, Bjerke, & Kaltenborn, 2004; Kellert,
1996; Kellert et al., 1996, Suryawanshi et al., 2013; 2014). These were age, gender,
education, primary occupation, current livestock holding, number of livestock lost to
predators, awareness of wildlife protection laws, and religion. We also used a simplified
index of religiosity to assess each individual’s level of religious activity (Huber & Huber,
2012; Krauss, Hamzah, & Idris, 2007). There were four questions pertaining to whether
and how often an individual prayed, visited religious centers, attended and followed
religious sermons. Each question was scored a 1 if they followed the religious practice; a
−1 if they did not follow and zero if they were indifferent. The scores in the self-reported
religiosity index were summed across these four questions and could range from −4
(nonreligious) to 4 (highly religious).
6 S. BHATIA ET AL.

Data analysis
R version 3.2.0 (April 16, 2015) and package lme4 were used to analyze the data. Paired
t-test and analysis of variance (ANOVA) were used to test for the difference in attitudes
toward snow leopard and wolves, and attitudes of Buddhists and Muslims toward the two
carnivores, respectively. Chi-square tests were used to assess the difference in people’s
willingness to support snow leopard and wolf conservation in the landscape.
Since there were a number of explanatory variables, we used a mixed model. The model
included age, sex, education, livestock holding, livestock loss, and awareness of wildlife
protection laws as fixed effects variables, and village as random effect variable on attitudes
(Bolker, 2008). Fixed effects are explanatory variables whose levels are pre-determined
(e.g., covariates of interest). Random effects are variables whose effect are interesting (e.g.,
individuals in a village, village in a region). We wanted to assess the effect of religion
without confounding the influence of these variables. The residuals of this model were
therefore regressed on religion to understand how much of the variation in local attitudes
toward carnivores was explained by religion after accounting for the variation explained
by the other variables. The residuals were similarly regressed on religiosity.

Results
Interpretations of the two religious doctrines in Ladakh
Our interviews with religious and academic scholars yielded highlighted differences and
similarities between Islam and Buddhism in relation to nature and wildlife. Several legends
describing the philosophy of the two faiths were also narrated to us. A simplified sketch of
the two faiths with respect to animals is presented below, with an acknowledgment that
outline does not capture the full complexity or nuances involved.

Islamic philosophy: Stewardship and ethical treatment

Our interviews with Muslim scholars highlighted the importance of trusteeship and ethical
treatment of animals. The idea of responsible stewardship in Islam was explained to us
with references to the Holy Quran. Even though humans have special privileges, the
Quran does not permit indiscriminate use of animals. Muhammed insisted on the welfare
of animals used by humans and therefore, ethical treatment of animals was the duty of a
practicing Muslim. There are laws and rules (known as shari’ah) regarding their ethical
treatment. Violence against another being is a sin against all of humanity, and against
Allah. Allah would assess an individual’s actions on the day of judgement and appropriate
punishments and rewards will be meted out.

Buddhist philosophy: Interdependence and compassion

Our interviews of Buddhist scholars in Ladakh indicated the importance of interdepen-
dence of life, as well as compassion in the way their religion viewed wildlife. The Buddhist
doctrine of dependent origination was explained with the following story: There was once
a tiger that thought that he was the protector of the jungle because he kept people at bay.
At the same time, the jungle in which the tiger lived developed a sense of pride because it
was home to many wild animals. In reality, however, neither the tiger nor the jungle could
 HUMAN DIMENSIONS OF WILDLIFE 7

exist on its own, without the presence of the other. The interviewee thus concluded that
there was no place for pride or ego in this world.
An interviewee similarly explained the importance of compassion, stating that
Buddhism believes in the cycle of rebirth. It proposes that every being could have been
related to us in the previous birth (as mother, father, brother, sister, son, or daughter), and
thus deserves to be treated kindly and respectfully.

The idea of sin, and dealing with carnivore-caused losses

We asked if and when killing of wildlife amounted to “sin.” Eleven out of the 20
interviewees agreed that the idea of sin was dependent on the context and the motive.
They explained that it was wrong to kill any animal without a reason. If it caused damage
then efforts should be made to chase it away, and if it continued to be troublesome then
one would have no option but to kill it. Another interviewee reasoned that it was
acceptable to kill “darinda” (pests) like the snow leopard or wolf, which caused livestock
damage, threatened peoples’ livelihoods, and spread fear. Only one Buddhist scholar
maintained that killing in any form, self-defense or otherwise, was sinful.
Retaliatory killing of wolves was evident with the presence of wolf traps close to villages
and pastures. We were informed that the traps were necessary to deal with livestock losses in
a resource-poor landscape. Many of the traps, however, had long been abandoned and
replaced by houses or fields due to decreased dependence on livestock. One of the inter-
viewees described that apart from religious sentiments, killing wildlife was a complicated
issue because there were many aspects to consider such as legal implications, the ease of
killing, availability of weapons, level of education, and awareness of the law—all of which
influenced an individual’s intention or desire to kill. In the end, though, recreational killing
was “more sinful” than killing for subsistence (including livelihood preservation).
An interviewee explained that even though recreational hunts technically amounted to
“sin,” Ladakhis (both Buddhists and Muslims) often used to accompany British authorities
on hunting expeditions during the colonial period. This was because hunting activity in
the State of Kashmir (of which Ladakh in now a part) provided colonial authorities with
the means to “civilize unruly subjects” using the begar (forced labor) system.

A quantitative examination of attitudes toward snow leopards and wolves, and the
influence of religion
Our quantitative surveys across Ladakhi villages showed that people generally exhibited
significantly less negative attitudes toward snow leopards (M = −.66, SE = .15) than wolves
(M = −1.44, SE = .16) (t(193) = 5.43, p < .001).
When other factors were not considered in the analysis, the influence of religion on
attitudes was significant for snow leopards (F(1, 192) = 4.49, p < .05) but not for wolves
(F(1, 192) = 1.66, p = .20). The followers of Islam showed held less negative attitudes
toward snow leopards (M = -.28, SE = .21) as compared to the followers of Buddhism
(M = −.95, SE = .22). However, after accounting for the variance explained by other
explanatory variables (residuals of model with all other covariates), the impact of
religion became nonsignificant for both species (R2 = .002, p = .21).
8 S. BHATIA ET AL.

In Buddhist villages, peoples’ attitudes toward snow leopards (R2 = .03, p < .05, M = .69,
Figure 2) and wolves (R2 = .02, p < .05, M = .51, Figure 2) were positively associated with
their level of religiosity. In the case of wolves, gender (M = −1.15, SE = .48, Table 1) and
years of education (M = .17, SE = .06) also had a significant effect, with men and less
educated people having more negative attitudes.
In Muslim villages, religiosity was not associated with attitudes towards wolves (R2 = −.01,
p = .93) or snow leopards (R2 = −.01, p = .98) (Figure 2). Gender had a significant influence on
attitudes toward snow leopards, with women having more negative attitudes than men
(M = 1.10, SE = .51). Awareness of wildlife laws also had a significant effect (M = −1.97,
SE = 1), with individuals who were inadequately aware of wildlife laws having more negatives
attitudes than the rest.

Examining the reasons behind the responses

Attitudes toward snow leopards and wolves varied, but we did not detect differences in responses
to the question, “Would you support carnivore conservation?” (χ2 (2, n = 194) = 3.53, p = .17). Of

Figure 2. Relationship between peoples’ religiosity and their attitudes toward snow leopards and
wolves in Ladakh, Indian Trans-Himalaya. The figure represents the relationship between the
residuals of the mixed-effects model and religiosity (that is, the level of religious activity). In the
Buddhist villages in Khalsi block, there was significant correlation between religiosity and attitudes
toward snow leopards (M = .69, p < .05), and wolves (M = .51, p < .05). No significant correlation
was observed between religiosity and attitudes toward snow leopards and wolves in the Muslim
villages in Shakar-Chiktan block.
 HUMAN DIMENSIONS OF WILDLIFE 9

Table 1. Parameter values of the mixed effects model. In the Buddhist villages, men and less educated
individuals had more negative attitudes toward wolves. In the Muslim villages, men and individuals
who were aware of wildlife laws had less negative attitudes toward snow leopards.
Buddhist (n = 111) Muslim (n = 83)
Snow leopard Wolf Snow leopard Wolf
Variables Estimate SE Estimate SE Estimate SE Estimate SE
Age .00 .02 .00 .02 .00 .02 −.02 .02
Sex (Male) −.24 .50 −1.15 .48 1.10 .51 .56 .65
Years of education .11 .07 .17 .06 −.03 .06 −.06 .08
Large-bodied livestock holding .04 .09 .10 .10 .09 .20 −.30 .25
Small bodied livestock holding −.02 .03 .00 .02 .06 .04 .03 .05
Large-bodied livestock lost (in numbers) −.22 .30 −.88 .53 NA NA .30 2.44
Small bodied livestock lost (in numbers) .01 .04 −.04 .07 .02 .13 −.19 .21
Awareness of wildlife laws (not aware) NA NA NA NA −1.97 1.00 −.59 1.23
Awareness of wildlife laws −1.51 1.75 −1.93 1.66 .23 .64 .62 .79
(unsure)
Note. Values highlighted in bold represent factors that had statistically significant influence on attitudes toward carnivores.

the 62% of interviewees who explained their response, only 10% offered moral/religious rationale
to support conservation (e.g., “It is a virtue to protect animals,” “It is important to save the
species”). Twenty-eight percent reported that they would support conservation on the condition
that people benefitted in some way, and that the government contributed to it. Sixteen percent
reported that they would support conservation for aesthetic reasons (characterized by responses
such as, “The animal is the natural ornament/pride of Ladakh,” “It is good to see these animals”).
The rest provided legal (10%) (e.g., “Because they are protected by the law,” “For the govern-
ment”), ecological, and other arguments (6%). The predominant reasons to not support con-
servation were economic loss (15%), and perceived incapability of the interviewee to
contribute (15%).
Similarly, on enquiring why they thought that the carnivores benefitted or did not benefit
people, 9% did not provide reasons. Those who thought that the animals did not benefit people
(93%) attributed it to economic losses. The reasons provided in favor of the carnivores (7%) were,
“They control wild prey population and indirectly benefit people,” “It’s good to see them,” “Snow
leopard fur fetches money.”

Discussion
Our interviews with religious and academic scholars revealed that the idea of mercy or compas-
sion toward animals was common to both the faiths but the position of human beings and their
roles and responsibilities with respect to wildlife were interpreted differently. In the case of
Buddhism, the emphasis was on a nondualistic worldview where animals and all sentient beings
function only in relation to each other, and do not have an independent identity. Conservation
messages connecting compassion, empathy, nonviolence and the karmic cycle might be better
appreciated in areas inhabited by the Buddhists.
In the case of Islam, the onus of protecting the weaker classes (including animals) was on
human beings. It was a moral obligation for a Muslim to mete out humane treatment to them to
find a place in Heaven. Messages that highlight the moral and ethical aspects of conservation
(e.g., role of human beings as stewards of the natural world, respect for and mercy toward Allah’s
creations) may be better appreciated in areas inhabited by the Muslims.
10 S. BHATIA ET AL.

Attitudes and behaviors toward the natural world are believed to be influenced by
religion (Jenkins & Chapple, 2011). In this article, however, religion had a complex,
relatively weak relationship with attitudes toward carnivores, and the effect was tempered
by the animal in question, as well as the demographic and economic factors such as
gender, level of education, and awareness of wildlife protection laws. Less than 10% of the
194 interviewees provided moral or religious argument to protect the carnivores. Even
though the influence of religion was weak, the extent of religiosity was a significant factor
in influencing attitudes of Buddhists (but not Muslims). This implies that the more
religious Buddhist respondents had more positive attitudes toward both the carnivores
but this was not the case with the Muslim respondents. Conservation strategies and
messages focusing on multiple dimensions of human–carnivore relationships (e.g., reli-
gious) may thus be necessary to appeal to different sections of the society. Self-reported
measures of religiosity, however, have their limitations as peoples’ perceptions of them-
selves may be different from their actual behavior (Luke, 2012). Future research should
seek to improve on the basic measurement indices for religiosity that we have used.

The influence of socioeconomic factors

The results of the quantitative analysis also highlighted the importance of incorporating
multiple variables to understand the extent of influence of the variable of interest (in our
case, religion). Gender, education, and awareness of wildlife law had an influence on
attitudes of local people toward the two carnivores. If socioeconomic variables had not
been considered in the analysis then one would have wrongly presumed religion to have a
larger role than it actually did.
Globally, studies assessing factors that influence attitudes toward carnivores have reported
that, in general, women tend to have more negative attitudes than men (Kleiven et al., 2004;
Prokop & Fančovičová, 2010; Suryawanshi et al., 2014). This pattern also appeared for snow
leopards in our sampled Muslim population. Prokop and Fančovičová (2010) have suggested
that the negative attitudes of women might be a result of greater perceived risk or fear. Other
studies have suggested that negative attitudes of women may arise because they seldom interact
with conservation agencies and are less engaged in conservation issues as compared to men
(Gillingham & Lee, 1999). Women also face the responsibility of running the household and end
up prioritizing the welfare of their family members at the cost of their own well-being, perhaps
leading to a greater resentment toward carnivores (Ogra, 2008).
Our results, however, were not uniform as men had more negative attitudes than women
toward wolves in the Buddhist villages. This contradicts our own earlier findings from Spiti valley
where we had reported that men had significantly more positive attitudes than women toward
both snow leopards and wolves (Suryawanshi et al., 2014). Women exhibit an ethic of care and
compassion toward God’s creations, and accept losses to predators with a more fatalistic attitude
(Inayat, 2002). Positive attitudes of women in our study site could perhaps be attributed to such a
worldview. The finding could also partly be explained by the fact that in the Buddhist villages,
men took turns to herd the village livestock to the pastures, where chances of wolf-related
depredation were high. However, in the Muslim villages that we sampled, grazing had largely
been outsourced to migratory herders, who were responsible for gathering livestock from
multiple villages, remaining in-charge of their care and upkeep all through the summer months.
As a result, few men from the Muslim villages ventured into the pastures for grazing livestock,
 HUMAN DIMENSIONS OF WILDLIFE 11

and presumably had fewer first-hand experiences of livestock depredation, and thus more
positive attitudes.
The level of formal education was a significant factor in influencing attitudes toward wolves in
Buddhist villages. Several studies have documented that more educated individuals had more
positive attitudes toward carnivores (Kellert, 1985; Røskaft et al., 2007; Suryawanshi et al., 2014).
Educated individuals may be more aware of conservation issues and laws, and may thus be able
to better accept the presence of carnivores (Kleiven et al., 2004). Education may also provide
access to alternate livelihood opportunities, and reduce the direct dependence of people on
nature.
Similarly, lack of knowledge about wildlife laws turned out to be a significant factor in
influencing attitudes toward snow leopards in the Muslim villages. This is an important
threat with the potential to directly impact carnivore killing. It may thus be vital for
conservation practitioners to simultaneously build conservation awareness, and facilitate
mechanisms that offer alternate sources of income to local people as a means of diversify-
ing risk, and improving attitudes toward carnivores in Ladakh.
Overall, people expressed more positive attitudes toward snow leopards than wolves in
our study area, which is not surprising as dislike for wolves is common across the globe
(Dressel, Sandström, & Ericsson, 2015; Kansky, Kidd, & Knight, 2014). This is likely to be
a result of the economic impacts of wolves, their ecology and behavior, and an inherent
cultural bias that vilifies them (Kellert et al., 1996; Kleiven et al., 2004).
Globally, 70–100% of people residing in Biodiversity Hotspot regions are affiliated to main-
stream faiths (Bhagwat, Ormsby, & Rutte, 2011). It has been argued that religion can provide a
moral and spiritual framework that may be suited to the needs of nature conservation (Bhagwat,
Dudley, & Harrop, 2011). Our results suggest that given the relatively weak relationship between
religion and attitudes of people toward carnivores, a religious argument alone may not be
sufficient to create greater acceptance for carnivores, but it may provide practitioners an
additional tool with which to engage with the communities living with large carnivores.
Finally, religion is embedded in the larger culture, and social values may be derived not just
from religion but also adaptations to the natural environment, biology, and the sociopolitical
landscape (Schwartz, 1996). For example, the interviewees spoke about the begar system, which
was essentially a coercive form of governance devised by the colonial administration to maintain
order in “uncivilized” mountainous regions such as Ladakh. The locals were forced to provide
services (as trackers, and porters) to the British sportsmen in search of game (Hussain, 2012),
with little consideration for their religious beliefs. Future work could similarly explore the drivers
that contribute to the formation of social values and their interaction with religion.

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