International Clinical Pathology Journal
Research Article
Principles of disease management in fruit crops
Introduction
India is the second largest producer of fruits in the world,
contributing 10% of the total production. But, the total production
is quite below (45.496million tons from 37.96million hectares)
the requirements at the recommended dietary allowances of 90gm
of fruits per capita per day as laid by Indian Council of Medical
Research. Accordingly, 90million tones of fruits are required to
feed the one billion population of India. Since, it is not possible to
attain such a high target, as plant diseases are the major constraints
in increasing the productivity of fruit crops. Huge pre–and post–
harvest losses are caused by various fruit diseases and unfavorable
environments leading to the total failure of the crops. Citrus decline,
apple scab, mango malformation, guava wilt, fire blights, banana
bunchy top and wilt, brown rots of stone fruits, crown galls, downy
and powdery mildews are the destructive fruit diseases causing huge
losses to the fruit industry worldwide.1 Intensive agriculture provides
greatest opportunities for the buildup of many new diseases and
insect–pests. Plant protection mainly aims to attain maximum yield
by keeping the crops healthy and preventing the losses occurring from
diseases and insect–pests. The successful and profitable fruit industry
largely depends on the adoption of improved scientific agricultural
technology. A principle of plant disease management broadly includes
preventive measures and curative measures that cure the plants
suffering from diseases. But none of the control methods when applied
individually provide satisfactory and effective disease control. Hence,
Integrated Disease Management (IDM) is the complete solution of all
the disease problems. This chapter describes the role and application
of plant pathology to horticulture in managing diseases of fruit
crops. The intended scientific information will be beneficial to the
students, scientists, researchers, planners and extension personnel for
better understanding of various plant protection methods. This better
understanding will lead to boost the world fruit industry for prosperity.
Concept of plant disease
It is important to define and discuss the basic terms commonly used
in the discipline of Plant Pathology for the better understanding of the
events occurring in plant diseases.2–5 Disease–The dictionary meaning
of disease is illness, ailment, and disorder. It is a change in the normal
function of plants which reduces the growth, development and lowers
the production. According to Stakman and Harrar (1957), disease is a
physiological disorder for structural abnormality that is harmful to the
plant or any of its parts or products that reduces the economic value.
Pathology–Science of diseases.6 Plant Pathology /Phytopathology–
(Phytos–plants; Pathos–suffering; Logos–knowledge) it is the science
of plant diseases in which nature of the disease, its development and
control measures are studied. Pathologists–are the expert in Pathology.
Pathogen–is any agent which causes damage. Host–is an organism
which support the activity of the pathogen or which provides food and
energy to the pathogen. Pathogenicity–is the ability of the pathogen
to cause a disease. Pathogenesis–is the series of events which take
place from the initial contact between the pathogen and its host in the
disease development for the production of symptoms. Symptom–are
the characteristic sign or indication as a result of the disease. They
are one of the important tools for diagnosing the diseases. Syndrome–
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Open Access
Volume 4 Issue 5 - 2017
SK Thind
Punjab Agricultural University, India
Correspondence: SK Thind, Punjab Agricultural University,
Ludhiana–141 004, Punjab, India, Email thindsk@pau.edu
Received: April 17, 2017 | Published: May 16, 2017
disease produces several valuable signs/symptoms and they are
collectively called syndrome. Spore–is a minute propagating unit
responsible for the production of new individuals of the same species.
Inoculums–is the infectious material or portion of the pathogen that
can cause a disease. Primary inoculums–is the over wintering or over
summering stage of the inoculums that begins the disease in the field
and upon favourable condition becomes an infectious agent to cause
a disease. Secondary inoculums–after disease development, pathogen
may produce another crop of spores/infective bodies which cause
secondary infection is called secondary inoculums. Penetration–is
the initial invasion/entrance of an organism into the host. Infection–is
the establishment of the pathogen inside the host after penetration. In
infection a parasitic relationship between the parasite and the host is
established. Incubation period–time taken by the pathogen to produce
symptoms on the host after penetration. Disease development–is
the series of events taking place between the time of infection and
completion of the disease symptoms. Disease cycle–is the series of
events taking place in disease development. Parasites–which live or
get its food from someone else. Obligate parasites–live only on living
tissue. Saprophyte–which live on dead tissue? Facultative parasites–
They are basically saprophytes but with favorable conditions and
availability of the host become parasites. Facultative saprophytes–
are the parasites but with unfavorable conditions forced to live as
saprophyte. Symbiosis–two living organisms live in association
with one another by benefiting each other. Virulence–is the capacity
of an organism to invade, multiply and reproduce on the host plant.
Susceptibility–is the inability of the host plant to resist the attack of
the pathogen. Resistance–is the inherent ability of the plant to resist
the attack of the pathogen and its activity. Virion–term used for a
virus particle outside the cell containing RNA or DNA surrounded
by protein coat. Vector–an agent that carries a pathogen from one
organism to another. The term is usually restricted to animals that
act as carrier of virus particles particularly insects, nematodes, fungi,
mites, etc.
Cause of plant disease
Plant diseases on the basis of causal factors mainly grouped
into three types namely parasitic (fungi, bacteria, mycoplasma and
spiroplasmas, nematodes, algae, protozoa, parasitic flowering plants)
non–parasitic (a biotic agents such as unfavorable weather conditions,
nutritional deficiency, air pollution and many edaphic conditions) and
viral diseases.2–5,7 The dimensions used in measurement of fungi and
123

Principles of disease management in fruit crops
bacteria is micron (u), for viruses mill micron (mu); and for internal
structure of the microorganism Angstrom unit (Ao) where1mm=1,000
microns (u), 1u=1000 mill micron (mu or nm) or 10–9 meter, 1mu=10
Angstrom units (Ao) or 10–10 metre.
Symptomatology in plant disease
Plant diseases produce various types of symptoms in the field. For
their accurate diagnosis, and better understanding the various terms are
used to define the symptoms in the diseases. Damping–off – killing of
young seedlings. If they are killed before they reach soil surface called
pre–emergence damping–off. In post–emergence phase infection of
young tissue of the collar take place at ground level. The seedlings
show toppling, wilting or collapse symptoms in nursery beds. Leaf
spots and Blights–Blight is the sudden and extensive damage to the
leaves. In blight large area of leaf or whole leaf or plant is involved.
In contrast, in leaf spot limited area is covered by the pathogen. Peach
leaf spot, citrus ring spot and blight. Potato late blight, Fire blight
of apple and pear. Anthracnose–is term used to dark brown necrotic
spots or patches on leaves, stems and fruits. These lesions have
black necrotic area in the centre. Anthracnose of mango, citrus and
guava. Malformations, galls and abnormal growth–terms are used for
excessive abnormal growth or swelling of shoots, leave or roots like
mango malformation, peach leaf curl, witch’s broom in lime, crown
gall of stone fruits. Rusts–a plant disease showing rust coloured spots.
Defoliation–is the sudden dropping of leaves by disease infection.
Canker–a canker is diseased area on leaves, branches, stems or fruits.
The death of the infected area is clearly visible. Wilt – is a general
term used for diseased plants showing water deficiency or total loss
of water called desiccation. The uptake of water become inadequate
and plants show loss of turgidity and death. Dutch elm disease,
Guava wilts, Panama disease of banana are the wilt diseases. Scab–
conspicuous raised lesions form a corky layer. Apple, Citrus and
Potato scab. Mildews–minute growth of the fungi on the host surface.
Powdery mildews where fungus lives on the host surface like moulds
or white powder and Downy mildews in which fungus penetrate
deep into host tissue. Powdery mildew of apple, grapes, beer and
mango and Downy mildew of grapes are the classical fruit diseases.
Necrosis–is death of cell or group of cells and dead tissue turn dark
brown. Mosaic–is the irregular pattern of light and dark green area
on the leaf blade of plant due to pathogen infection. Citrus mosaic,
Apple mosaic, Papaya mosaic, Plum and Peach mosaic. Chlorosis or
yellowing–is uniform change of colour of leaf blade. Peach phony
disease, Citrus stubborn, peach yellow, lethal yellow of plum. Vein
banding–dark green area along the leaf veins. Vein clearing–veins
become clear, transparent or show chlorosis, necrosis or cracking.
Citrus tristeza virus, citrus greening Epinasty–curling of leaf from tip
downward. Citrus exocortis viroid. Cupping–curling of leaf margin
upward. Enation–is out growth from the leaf blade.
The basic requirements for management of plant disease are:
disease free clean and healthy seeds/planting materials; clean field or
pathogen free soil; prevention of entry and infection by the pathogens
in standing crop and precaution during harvesting and storage of the
produce. Various components of Integrated Disease Management in
controlling fruit diseases are discussed below.
Horticultural practices
These non–chemical practices can successfully be exploited in
managing many fruit diseases. These practices greatly improve the
efficiency of control methods and in conjunction with other methods
Citation: Thind SK. Principles of disease management in fruit crops. Int Clin Pathol J. 2017;4(5):123‒137. DOI: 10.15406/icpjl.2017.04.00109
Copyright:
©2017 Thind 124
help in maximizing the fruit yields. Use of disease free healthy seeds
and elite propagating material, orchard density, nutrition, irrigation,
pruning, crop rotation, intercropping, nucellar embryony, orchard
sanitation by removal of diseased plant parts, wild and alternate/
collateral hosts and their proper destruction are the important
practices in managing the diseases.8,9 These practices are safe,
cheaper, environmentally safe and effective in reducing the incidence
of various diseases The practices like crop rotation, green manuring
and intercropping always indirectly reduces the diseases by enhancing
saprophytic soil microbiota thereby reducing pathogen inoculum and
disease occurrence. Different approaches of these practices are:
Use of disease free seeds and elite propagating
materials
Disease free planting material is the backbone of Fruit Industry.
Disease free nursery should be raised by taking propagative
materials from disease free healthy plants that are marked, indexed
and identified by making surveys of various fruit orchards.10–12 The
disease free elite material should be preserved for mass multiplication
and distribution of healthy saplings for raising healthy fruit orchards.
Fruit plants like mango, citrus, guava, grapes, pome and stone fruits,
banana, pomegranate, strawberry etc. are mostly multiplied by
budding, grafting, cuttings, suckers/rhizomes etc. If the mother plant
carries a transmissible disease, by vegetative propagation it is passed
to the offspring. Such infected nursery plants serve as one of the
important reservoirs for the introduction and spread of diseases and
new pathogens into the virgin area. Citrus viruses (psoriasis’, tristeza,
exocortis, greening, ring spot, xyloporosis, stubborn, vein yellow,
mosaic, witches’s broom), banana (bunchy top, mosaic, infectious
chlorosis, Panama & moko wilt), grapes (leaf roll, little leaf, stem
pitting, fan leaf, yellow mosaic, vein bending, necrosis, corky bark,
Pierce’s disease, bacterial canker), mango malformation and canker ,
apple (mosaic, chlorotoic leaf spot, star crack), pineapple wilt virus,
mulberry (mosaic, yellow net vein, ring spot, dwarf), plum line
pattern virus, plum and peach mosaic, peach X disease, peach root
knot nematode are readily transmitted and spread through the use of
infected planting material (scions or rootstocks) and propagating tools
for nursery production. These diseases can spread especially long
distance and internationally by the importation and use of infected
bud wood and its propagation in nurseries. Therefore, the production
of disease free elite bud wood and sapling are very important to
manage the vegetative transmitted diseases.
Horticultural practices like infected clonal rootstocks, top working
of existing tree with infected scion cultivars and using infected tree as
source for propagation material have resulted worldwide distribution
of virus and virus–like diseases of fruit crops. Most of the diseases
in fruit crops are dispersed mainly by person engaged in propagation
through bud–wood or scion cultivars from infected plants.
Use of virus free bud wood for citrus nurseries propagation
and certified elite planting material has been recommended and
considered adequate to control the spread of citrus viruses such as
tristeza, greening, ring spot, exocortis, mosaic, witches broom etc.13
The introduction and spread of root knot nematode and crown gall
bacterial disease of grapevine in virgin areas can be checked using
certified healthy planting materials. The use of disease free seeds have
been suggested to manage citrus psorosis virus, mango malformation,
papaya ring spot virus, mulberry ring spot virus, mango bacterial
cankers and malformation.14 When plants are propagated by seeds,
these should be treated with fungicides. The latent infection in banana

Principles of disease management in fruit crops
suckers results in the introduction of banana bunchy top and mosaic
viruses in new plantations. Precaution must be taken not to introduce
peach plants infected with root knot nematode for planting new
orchards. Extraction of seed from healthy fruits is recommended for
raising Phytophthora free citrus nursery. The fruit should be harvested
from the tree at height of 4 feet or more to avoid the disease infection
from soil near ground level. Strict sanitary measures should be
followed while extracting and cleaning the seeds.15
Orchard density/spacing
Proper recommended spacing in fruit crops prevents development
of high humidity on plant surface which favor many diseases like
mango sooty mould, citrus canker and Phytophthora, grapes downy
mildew, powdery mildew and anthracnose. Narrow spacing (10x10ft)
in Kin now mandarin trees have more sooty mould build up than
widely spaced (22x22 and 25x25ft) trees.16 Affected fruits are more
prone to sun burn injury and are also drop prematurely. North–west
facing (shady) site of Kin now mandarin in 10x10ft spacing have more
incidence of sooty mould than South west (Sunny) site due to more
development of congenial environment in shady sites. The incidence
of sooty mould is more in dense orchards of mango. Tree exposed to
Eastern side have less incidence of sooty mould while the tree in the
centre of the orchard have incidence as high as up to 95%.17
The shade of tree canopy and build up of humidity in dense
orchard increases the incidence of citrus Phytophthora and downy
mildew of grapes. Similarly, closely spaced banana plants are more
prone to sigatoka disease. Grapes powdery mildew, downy mildew
and anthracnose can be reduced by checking overcrowding and dense
growth of the grapevines. Damping–off diseases in fruit nurseries
causes severe damage when seedlings are overcrowded. In contrast,
incidence of pineapple wilt virus was recorded maximum in wider
(135X75X37.5cm) and minimum in (90X60X30cm) closer spacing.
Nutrition
Nutrition is one of the environmental factors that affects plant
diseases, their survival, and virulence of pathogen, vigour and
resistance of plants and also favor biocontrol agents. Good nutrition
has been recognized as preventive measures for ailments where as
wrong or excessive applications are inviting the problems. In addition
to C, H and O, thirteen mineral nutrients are generally essential for
plant growth, development and production of good yield.18
In general, high nitrogen levels increases susceptibility to
many diseases while potassium increases resistance and the role of
phosphorous is variable. Severely nutrient deficient plants are also
more vulnerable to the attack of the diseases than that fertilized with
recommended rates. The incidence of apple canker (Nectria galligena)
is higher in trees applied with 250KgN/ha annually than 100KgN.19
Incidence of white root rot of apple (Rosellinia necatrix) increases
with the addition of commercial nitrogen fertilizers. Addition of
organic amendments or reduced dose of fertilizers helps in reducing
the disease. Nitrogen deficient stone fruit trees are more susceptible to
Leucostoma canker than those fertilized well. Application of optimum
dose of nitrogen fertilizer helps in managing peach leaf curl disease.
In contrast, high nitrogen doses favor the Panama disease of banana.
The spread of guava wilt could be checked by judicious amendments
of N, Zn, oil cakes and Lime whereas under green managing, no
incidence of wilt was noticed.20 The incidence of wilt was less at
630ppm N but was more at both higher and lower levels. Application
Citation: Thind SK. Principles of disease management in fruit crops. Int Clin Pathol J. 2017;4(5):123‒137. DOI: 10.15406/icpjl.2017.04.00109
Copyright:
©2017 Thind 125
of phosphate was effective in reducing the attack.21 More incidence
of the guava wilt was recorded in Lateritic soil pH 6.522 and in clay
and sandy loam soil.23 The floral malformation in Dusehri mango can
be reduced by increasing the rate of N from 100–300gm/plant/year.24
In contrast, P or K (P+K) application increased the malformation
drastically and their regular uses should be discouraged. The incidence
of bunch rot or grey mould of grapes can be reduced by controlling
excessive vegetative growth by judicious N fertilizations.25 Normally
high nitrogen application favors virus multiplication but also reduces
disease severity or symptoms. Nitrogen deficient or below the optimal
level plants are more damaged by viral infection. A high rate of
nitrogen usually increases resistance to facultative parasites (causing
necrotic leaf spots) in fresh, green, young plant tissue. Thus diseases
caused by obligate and facultative parasites exhibit quite opposite
reaction to high nitrogen fertilization.26
Excessive application of nitrogen increase citrus canker,
Xanthomonas citri.27 Neither form of nitrogen prevents infection of
stone fruits by Xanthomonas pruni, although NH4–N reduced bacterial
cankers of Prunus by hastening periderm development, so that cankers
healed more promptly. In contrast, NO2–N reduced defoliation of
peaches and plums. Excess nitrogen and deficient zinc, iron and
magnesium increased the susceptibility of grapevines to bacterial
canker disease, Xanthomonas campestris pv. Viticola. The time of
application of nitrogenous fertilization also may have a pronounced
effect on disease expression. “Side” – Dressing of nutrients to
post emerged seedlings avoid the attack of damping–off diseases
(Rhizoctonia or Pythium) but may increase Fusarium (Gibberella) and
other root rots due to mechanical injury to root system or plant parts.
Application of various levels of NPK result difference in incidence of
pineapple wilt virus.28 Addition of high phosphate fertilizers in pots
favored growth and parasitism by Thielaviopsis besicola by reducing
growth rate of citrus plants.29
Application of optimum doses of potassium helps in managing the
Alternaria blight of apple. The grapevines with potassium deficiency
are more susceptible to Botryodiplodia theobromae showing negative
correlation of K status of vines with the disease.30 Potassium has
been found to reduce apple scab; likewise K is also responsible for
aggravating apple fire blight (Erwinia amylovora). Addition of farm
yard manure (FYM), poultry manure, coffee and cherry husk and
pulp fruit skin (waste) in the mandarin trees basin reduce the citrus
Phytophthora and increase the biological agents, Trichoderma spp.31
Incorporation of composed tree bark in the soil mixture for raising
nursery stocks in containers of fruit plants provide effective control
of soil borne diseases caused by Pythium, Phytophthora, Rhizoctonia,
Thielaviopsis and Fusarium.
The damping–off citrus seedlings can be managed by modifying
soil pH with adding certain fertilizers. A pH of 4.0–5.5 has been
found to be most congenial for avoiding the disease; this pH range
is maintained by applying 500 lbs ferrous sulphate with 10,000lbs
of sulphur per acre and ploughing deep (15cm) into the soil.32 This
pH level is also favorable for biocontrol agents, Trichoderma spp.
that parasites the citrus damping–off fungus, Rhizoctonia solani.33
Higher doses of nitrogenous fertilizers should be discouraged to force
growth. Ammonia and nitrate in higher concentration injure or kill the
tender plants.34
Irrigation
Careful water management in orchards and nurseries helps in

Principles of disease management in fruit crops
minimizing damping–off, Phytophthora, Pythium, Rhizoctonia,
Fusarium diseases of fruit crops. Damping–off of papaya and citrus
is more severe in warm and wet weather and the disease causes
heavy mortality when seedlings are overcrowded. Raised seed bed
or polyethylene bags or plastic trays with proper drainage facilities
should be used for raising nurseries or transplanting of young
seedlings.12 For controlling citrus damping–off, nursery should be
raised in soil having pH 4.0–5.5 which also favor the biocontrol agent
Trichoderma spp. which parasitised Rhizoctonia solani. Frequency
and interval of irrigation prevents lethal infection of Phytophthora
spp. in citrus. New planting should be done on raised berms to help
drainage of water away from tree trunk and root zones. Citrus foot and
root rot caused by Phytophthora spp can best be controlled by keeping
bud union least 6–9 inches above soil line at the time of planting so
that irrigation water does not come in direct contact with the scion
portion which are most susceptible.35
Citrus Phytophthora, moko and panama diseases of banana, guava
wilt, papaya foot rot and damping–off seedlings in nursery beds and
white root rot of apple are the important fruit disease that can be easily
controlled by managing the irrigation water. Flood irrigation helps a
lot in increasing the incidence and spread of citrus foot rot/gummosis
by the movement of water from the infected plants to healthy plants.
That is why number of plants showing foot rot/gummosis symptoms
are always found neighboring to affected plants in the orchards. The
incidence of citrus foot rot, guava wilt, Panama disease of banana,
moko bacterial wilt of banana and white root rot of apple is more
and spread is accelerated with flood irrigation and with the onset
of monsoon. White root rot of apple is serious in water logged and
heavy soils of Himachal Pradesh and in U.P. Hills at pH 5.5–7.0.
The grape anthracnose is severe in warm and wet weather and with
increase in RH and precipitation during monsoon the disease showed
its maximum effect.36 The survival of grape canker bacteria can be
reduced from 45 days to 25days by deep ploughing the infected fallen
leaves in moist soil conditions.37
In contrast, flood–fallowing the soil for longer period after residue
deep ploughing enhances the control of Panama disease of banana and
sclerotia of Sclerotium sclerotiorum where as better drainage helps in
reducing the moko bacterial disease of banana. Proper and adequate
drainage of soil reduces the number and activity of some soil borne
pathogen like Pythium, Rhizoctonia, Phytophthora and nematodes.
Drought conditions during winter also prevent the development
and survival of the apple scab fungus on scabby leaves.38 Flooding
field for longer period or drying fallowing also helps in reducing the
pathogen like Fusarium, Rhizoctonia, Pythium, Phytophthora and
nematodes. In general, tree receiving drip irrigation suffered less
damage than flood irrigated trees. Bacterial canker in vineyards and
citrus Phytophthora incidence was recorded less in trees receiving
drip irrigation than flood irrigation. Drought condition favour peach
leaf curl disease and periodic irrigation of tree helps in managing the
disease.
Pruning
It is one of the important mean for plant protection and easiest and
best tool for reducing the primary inoculum of various fruit diseases.
Being the perennial nature of the fruit crops, a number of disease
cycle are produced depending upon favorable weather and availability
of susceptible host plants. Thus reservoir of inoculum develops which
helps in the fresh occurrence and dormant survival of the pathogen.
Citation: Thind SK. Principles of disease management in fruit crops. Int Clin Pathol J. 2017;4(5):123‒137. DOI: 10.15406/icpjl.2017.04.00109
Copyright:
©2017 Thind 126
The effective fungicidal control is difficult, when the diseases are
well established through perennial infection within the orchard. The
only viable practice to reduce the inoculum is the pruning of diseased
plant parts like leaves, twigs, branches, fruits, etc. and their proper
destruction help in reducing the carrier organism.
Pruning should be performed in warm dry weather to promote rapid
wound healing. Pruning should be well planned each year to avoid
large cuts and injuries which heal more slowly. All infected, dead and
weakened wood should be pruned. Pruning of parts to open the center
of the tree for better light penetration helps in managing the shade
loving diseases. Infected plant parts (cankers) should be removed in
the season when tree heals promptly. For surgical treatments, scrap the
affected diseased bark portions of the tree trunk, branches and limbs
along with 3–5cm healthy bark with the help of sharp tools (knife).
The scrapped diseased bark and pruned wood should be collected
and destroyed completely to avoid the re–occurrence of the disease
from raked pruned dead wood. Pruning tools like knives, shears,
saws, secateurs should be disinfected between cuts in disinfectant
solution (alcohol or mercuric chloride). Large cankered or dead limbs
should be removed by cutting 10–15cm below the canker margin.
Surgery sites, cut ends or wounds should be covered with fungicidal
preparation like Bordeaux paste or paint etc. After pruning spray
of Bordeaux mixture helps in rapid wound healing and control of
dormant inoculum. Dormant protective sprays of Bordeaux help in
managing the diseases of deciduous fruit crops.
The incidence of apple, citrus, mango and grapes cankers;citrus
scab, brown rot of stone fruits, mango malformation, anthracnose,
post harvest fruit drop in citrus, powdery mildew of fruit crops can
successfully be reduced by pruning of infected plant parts. Removal
of infected leaves helps in reducing or removing the inoculum
potential. Pruning of infected plant parts before the commencement
of new flush reduces the primary inoculum potential of citrus diseases
like cancer, anthracnose, scab, post harvest drop, pink disease and
powdery mildew. Pruning of dead wood and branches showing
greening disease symptoms will help in minimizing the disease and
its secondary spread by psyllid vector. Pruning of mildew twigs in
dormant stage/shoot before green tip stage are effective in reducing
the apple powdery mildew in current season as well as next season
crop.39 Removal of lower infected leaves at 2–3months interval and
destruction of previous crop debris are useful in reducing the inoculum
thereby reducing the sigatoka disease of banana.40
Removal of infected twigs, shoots and leaves and their destruction by
burning helps in reducing the grape powdery mildew and anthracnose
in current season as well as during coming season.41 Improvement in
sunlight by removing excessive vegetation in grapevine will improve
the microclimate in reducing the incidence and spread of powdery
mildew and downy mildew diseases. Removing of over wintered
mummified berries from grapevine and ploughing mummies into the
soil are beneficial in the control of grape downy mildew. Pruning of
infected canker branches and uprooting of dead and severely infected
vines provide control of crown gall of grapevine.42
Time of pruning also greatly affect the disease intensity of grape
bacterial canker. Pruning during 1–15 September is highly vulnerable
for the disease development and spread in Maharashtra and North
Karnatka due to frequent rains during this period. Pruning of vine after
second week of October is recommended because monsoon becoming
dry from second week of October onwards which is unfavorable for

Principles of disease management in fruit crops
the disease development. Collection and burning of diseased twigs and
leaves helped in managing mango powdery mildew and anthracnose
as they serve potential perenation. Pruning has been found effective
for curing mango malformation disease. The diseased vegetative and
floral malformed parts should be pruned along with the basal 15–20cm
apparently healthy portion and burnt.43
Leaf pruning is the useful practice for reducing the damage from
Graphiola leaf spot disease of date palm. Pruning of deadwood and
pasting of cut ends are the only effective methods to combat the
mango die–back (Botryodiplodia theobromae). Regular inspection
for a fresh infection, judicious pruning followed by spraying/pasting
greatly helps in controlling the disease.44 Clipping of scabby and
cankerous leaves during July helps in minimizing disease severity of
citrus scab and canker and their further spread in the citrus orchards
and nurseries. Pruning of dead wood during January–February before
the start of new growth in citrus helps in reducing the incidence of
anthracnose, Diplodia, Alternaria and sooty mould diseases. Spray of
Bordeaux mixture followed by Bordeaux paste and paint to cut ends
control this disease effectively. The productivity of disease infected
declined orchards (rejuvenation) can be increased with pruning/head
backing followed by prudent management of irrigation and nutrition.
Intercropping
Inter–cropping with certain crops helps in reducing the inoculum
of the diseases or population of root knot nematode in the fruit crops.
These crops either produce chemical substances which are inhibitory
to the micro–organism or affect the population so that main crop
escapes from damage. Intercropping the grapevines with marigold
(Tagetes spp), asparagus or sun hemp was effective against root
knot nematode, Meloidogyne incognita.45 These antagonistic plants
release toxic substance in soil that helps in reducing the population
of plant parasitic nematodes. In contrast, cucurbits as intercrop
help in outbreak of banana mosaic. The susceptible weed flora and
intercultivation of cucurbits should be stopped to reduce the incidence
of papaya mosaic virus.
Trap plants are also used against nematodes which attracts the
nematode from the main crop. They help to reduce the amount
of inoculum or population of nematodes reaching the main crop.
Crotalaria trap plants, traps the juveniles of root knot nematode.
Bacterial canker diseases of mango, grapevines, citrus, banana moko,
stone and pome fruit are generally spread by wounds/mechanically
injuries during various orchard operations like ploughing, planking,
pruning and other tractor drawn operations. Care must be taken to
avoid such wound/injuries to the fruit plants. Bark injuries attract
more insects and develop more infection than intact bark. Most of
the soil diseases also enter the plants through wounds or injuries like
citrus Phytophthora.
Crop rotation
The cultivation of the same crop (orchards) or related crops for
longer period leads to the continuous survival of the pathogen in soil
or on plant parts which gradually increases the disease intensity. As
a result soil becomes “sick” and creates replant problems in certain
fruit crop like peaches and citrus. Crop rotation completely control
the diseases of crops that only survive on living plants or as long as
their residue available for their saprophytic activity. Crop rotations
for 3–4years with non–hosts crops reduce the incidence of Panama
disease of banana. Soil fallow or crop rotation with non–host crops
Citation: Thind SK. Principles of disease management in fruit crops. Int Clin Pathol J. 2017;4(5):123‒137. DOI: 10.15406/icpjl.2017.04.00109
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©2017 Thind 127
for 12months for strain B and 6months for strain SFR are refereed to
control the moko disease of banana. Rotation of fruit crop with wheat
appears to be beneficial for reducing the population of ring nematode.
Fallowing is helpful in reducing the inoculum during hot summer.
Fallowing for 6–12months before replanting helps in reducing the
citrus Phytophthora in the soil. Host free period or fallow for 1–4years
should be allowed before replanting of new vines infected with root
knot nematode in the orchard. The population of ring nematode
should be kept under check because they predispose the peach and
French Prune trees to bacterial canker.
Orchard floor management
Freeze injury in grape vine helps in development of crown gall
bacterium. Management practices that reduce injury are useful in
managing the disease. Burying of young vines in fall reduce the
freeze injury. “Hilling” of trunks with soil in the fall is practiced
to protect crown tissue from cold temperature. Another common
practice, the use of multiple trunk vines in Northern United states to
overcome the problem of bacterial crown gall. Out of various training
system of grapes, Head system showed least development of grape
anthracnose.46 In contrast bacterial canker is late and less in Telephone
system and maximum in bower system. Number of canes per unit
area also favored the disease if were kept more than recommended
ones. Training of Kin now and sweet orange plants and grapevines
by removing the low lying braches and canes helps in controlling
the citrus Phytophthora fruit rot and grape anthracnose. Training of
grapevines should be performed in such a way that splashes of wet soil
during raining season may not reach the foliage, canes, and branches
to reduce the incidence of anthracnose, canker, and downy mildew
diseases. Training of branches even removal of foliage covering fruit
bunches reduces disease intensity and improves chemical control.
Over crowded canopy leads to early incidence and outbreak of grape
bacterial canker. This also restricts the bactericides to reach the targets.
Bearing citrus tree affected by foot and root rot can be saved by
earthing up or enarching of root stocks.47 For earthing, the dead and
affected bark is removed along with healthy bark and the surgery sites
(trunk portions) are earthen up. Soil is kept moist for the regeneration
of roots from the healthy trunk portion and root zone area is also
drenched with effective fungicides. For enriching, 1–4 seedlings of
resistant rootstocks are grown near the affected trunks and then grafted
on the trunk to give strength to root system of damaged plants. Pre–
harvest fruit rots caused by various fungi in date palm are the major
problems worldwide. High humidity and rain at Khalal stage to fruit
maturity can cause yield losses upto 65.12% in variety Khuneizi at
Bikaner centre. Pre/post–harvest fruit rots can be reduced by inserting
wire rings in bunches prior to the Khalal stage to facilitate ventilation
and rapid drying of wet fruits. Paper wrappers should be used in early
Khalal stage to protect the bunches from rains.48
Nucellar embryony
This is another important method used for the control of viral
diseases. Citrus viruses are rarely seed borne and are generally
restricted to the vascular tissue particularly the phloem. Since there
is no direct vascular link between the parent and either the nucellar
embryos. The virus particles are eliminated in the seedling offspring.49
Most of citrus varieties produce two distinct types of embryos. The
gametic (nucellar) embryos are produced asexually from somatic
cells of seed parents and lie along the normal embryos. These nucellar

Principles of disease management in fruit crops
embryos are similar in genetic characteristics of mother plants and
seedlings are therefore true to type. Nucellar seedlings from the
virus infected parent trees are free from the viruses. Bud wood from
the nucellar seedling can be exploited for the mandatory bud wood
certification programmed. For the selection of nucellar seedling,
Poncirus trifoliata is used as pollen parents, as it imparts a dominant
trifoliate leaf character to all hybrid seedlings which can thus be
eliminated. Nucellar seedlings have certain drawbacks like they have
more thorns, bear late and produce poor quality fruits. However these
can be overcome by using apical parts or bud wood from old nuclear
limes.
Orchard sanitation
The most important, cost effective and environmentally safe
disease management practice in fruit diseases is to identify and
eradicate infected plant source that helps in further spread of the
disease in new plants/groves. Once any tree gets infected with a virus
and virus like agents, there is no practical method to eliminate the
virus. The only remedy is to uproot and destroy the infected plants
and replant with certified healthy plants. Removal and destruction
of unproductive trees infected by citrus viruses (tristeza, greening,
exocortis, ring spot, mosaic, psoriasis’) and replanting with certified
elite planting materials free from these viruses on tolerant root stocks
as recommended. This will also prove helpful in checking the further
spread of the viruses in the grove50–52 Similarly, other viral diseases
of banana, grapes, papaya, pome and stone fruits, can be managed
by removing the source of infection of infected plants and replanting
with healthy nursery plants.
Sanitation is the destruction of diseased plant material in the form
of plant parts in the field or crop residue after harvest. Ploughing
of infected plant parts like leaves, stems, trunks, tubers, rhizomes,
roots and left over fruits in soil help to cover the inoculum in soil
which facilitate in quick disintegration (rotting) of plant materials.
Removal and destruction of diseased plants, over–wintering and
over–summering hosts and alternate/collateral or wild hosts are
useful in plant disease management. Rogueing of infected plants
should be performed routinely in nurseries, green houses and orchards
to prevent the spread of diseases which serve as ready source of
inoculum. Eradication programme is the best approach to eliminate
and eradicate the citrus canker completely in USA, South America,
New Zealand and Australia by destroying millions of canker infected
trees with the adoption of mass eradication campaign. The eradication
campaign of banana bunchy top virus had been successful in keeping
the disease spread in check. Exclusion of the disease by destroying
diseased plants helps in checking the spread of banana bunchy top
virus from plant to plant by aphid. Similarly, banana mosaic plant
must be removed out from the field to avoid further spread by aphid.53
The most practical way of combating apple scab (Venturia
inaequalis) is disturbing the over–wintering cycle of the pathogen
responsible for ascospore production which serves as primary
inoculum. Removal and burning of fallen leaves help in controlling
the disease as the fungus survives saprophytically on the diseased
leaves. Ploughing of diseased leaves in soil prevents the subsequent
development of ascogenous stage of the fungus. Application of 5%
urea at leaf fall helps in the formation of pseudothecia, thus reducing
primary inoculums.54 Removal and proper destruction of infected
plant parts like mummified fruits, dead twigs and pruned wood greatly
reduces the canker of apple, mango, grapes, citrus, and sweet cheery.
Removal of infected shoots in winter and affected fruits during
Citation: Thind SK. Principles of disease management in fruit crops. Int Clin Pathol J. 2017;4(5):123‒137. DOI: 10.15406/icpjl.2017.04.00109
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©2017 Thind 128
thinning aids in controlling powdery mildew of stone fruits, apricot,
plum, cherries peaches, nectarines. The ignorance of removing
Peach X disease infected tree results in much higher incidence
than the removed trees. The removal of peach root knot nematode
(Meloidogyne spp.) infected plants and old roots in replant situation,
helps a lot in managing the disease.55 Raking of fallen and dried leaves
and their destruction help in reducing the incidence of peach leaf curl
(Taphrina deformans).
The crown gall bacterium (Agrobacterium tumefaciens) survives
in vineyards within the galls and vine parts. Proper destruction of
diseased vines and its parts especially roots are important in reducing
the disease. Similarly, root knot nematode infected declined vineyards
must be removed with the cutter below the crown, not to pull out
with chain which usually breaks off the trunk at ground level. Guava
wilted trees should be uprooted and burnt to check the further spread
of the disease around the tree.56 Destruction of infected plant parts,
regular inspection and seedling certification have been recommended
as preventive measures for mango bacterial canker.57 Diseased leaves,
twigs, fruit lying on orchard floor should be collected and all infected
twigs from the tree should be pruned and burnt for the effective
control of mango anthracnose, Colletotrichum gloeosporiodes.
Collection and burning of all the infected inflorescence and spathes
helps in reducing the incidence of Khamedj disease/inflorescence rot
(Mauginiella scattae) of date palm.
Destruction of alternate/colletral hosts
Some diseases of the perennial crop overwinter or over summer
mainly on wild plant or alternate/collateral hosts. Eradication of these
hosts helps in elimination of the source of inoculum. The destruction
of wild grasses, sedges and lilies as well as wild grapevines helps
in reducing the Pierce’s disease bacterium in California. Similarly,
elimination of wild Prunes and grasses, especially Johnson grass
control the Phony peach disease as they serve as breeding and over
wintering grounds for the vector, sharpshooter leaf hopper. Removal
of rose bushes highly susceptible to powdery mildew in home garden
has effectively controlled the disease without protective spray of
fungicides.
Various citrus hosts like Meyor lemon and Evodia hupelensis are
the symptom– less carriers of tristeza virus. They should be removed
and eradicated from the orchards as they act as foci for the secondary
spread of the virus. Collateral hosts like Curry leaf (Murrya spp.)
should be destroyed and not grown in vicinity of citrus nursery
and orchards as they serve hosts for citrus psylla (greening vector)
breeding and multiplication. Removal of collateral/alternate hosts for
both bacterium and psylla vector will help in minimizing the greening
disease of citrus.
Elimination of leguminous hosts and wild Prunus species is useful
for control of primary inoculum of anthracnose of stone fruits. The
wild Chocherry and Bitter cherry are the important reservoir host of
Peach X disease in California and their removal within 200m of peach
orchard significantly reduce the disease. Elimination of known hosts
(balsam root, dandelion, plantain) of Cherry rasp leaf virus reduces
the virus incidence. Cherry rasp leaf virus and Peach rosette mosaic
virus are seed born in Chenopodium quinoa and their removal helps
in managing the disease. Avoidance in cultivation of tobacco, tomato,
cape berry, Zinnia and various weeds near papaya plantation helps in
reducing the spread of leaf curl virus by whitefly. The papaya nursery
should be raised in an isolated place free from whiteflies. Cultivation
of papaya near cucurbits should be avoided to reduce the incidence

Principles of disease management in fruit crops
of papaya ring spot virus.58 The fungus of pink disease of citrus
(Corticium salmon color) forms its basidiophores on collateral hosts.
Removal of these hosts near orchard is recommended for the effective
control of the disease. Banana moko wilt disease has many weed hosts
and strains. Killing of weed hosts and plants of Heliconia spp. away
from main orchard helps in reducing the moko disease of banana.59
Vector control
Insect–vectors serve as an important means for the dispersal of
various plant pathogens. They affect plant diseases indirectly by
acting as agents of dispersal of plant pathogens. Some pathogens
can propagate and multiply inside their body, while other does not.
All insects carrying plant viruses function as agents of dispersal
and inoculation. Pollinating insects disperses bacteria of fire blight
disease. The injuries caused by insects at the time of transmission of
some pathogen may also serve as entry points for the penetration of
other pathogens. Fusarium, Alternaria, Colletotrichum enters into
plants through wounds caused by insects. Many fruit diseases are
effectively transmissible by insect–vectors like citrus tristeza virus,
banana bunchy top and mosaic virus, papaya mosaic and ring spot
virus by aphids; Pierce’s disease of grapes and Phony peach by sharp
shooter leaf hopper; grape fan leaf virus by nematode; citrus greening
by citrus psylla; citrus canker by citrus leaf minor; brown rot of stone
fruits by Orient fruit moth, borer and fruit fly; moko disease of banana
by insects; cherry rasp leaf and peach rosette mosaic by dagger
nematode; sooty mould by honey dew secreting insects; papaya
leaf curl by whitefly; pineapple wilt virus and little cherry virus by
mealy bugs and cherry mottle leaf and peach mosaic by bud mite.
The successful control of these diseases largely lies on the proper
management of insect–vectors responsible for their spread from plant
to plant with in the grooves.
The bunchy top virus of banana could be reduced by eliminating
the aphid (Pentalonia nigronervosa) with insecticidal sprays, dusts,
injection or in capsulation in situ before destroying the plants.
Application of insecticides+weedicide (2,4–D) is highly effective
in killing the aphid and diseased plants including stools. Similarly,
incidence and spread of citrus tristeza virus can be reduced by
controlling population of aphid vector. Bacterial wilt of banana could
be managed by removal of male buds which help in transmission of
the disease. Insect vector visiting the flower should be killed with
proper insecticides. A single citrus psylla can transmit the greening
disease and 5 or more psyllid per plant can transmit the disease up
to 100%.60 The psylla is more active during March–April and July–
September on new growth flushes of citrus and sprays of insecticides
during the active period give effective control. Biological control of
psylla by parasites, predator and microbes can also be exploited.61
The sooty mould disease of fruit trees occurs in association with
honey–dew secreting insects like aphids, whiteflies, psyllid, scales
and mealy bugs, etc. Sooty mould of mango in Siyana blocks of
Bulandshahar (UP) and citrus especially in Kin now mandarin and
sweet oranges in Punjab are of serious concern. Application of
suitable insecticides in combination with fungicides helps in reducing
the disease incidence.62 Sharpshooter leaf hopper (Xylella fastidiosa)
and Spittal bugs are the insect vectors of Pierce’s disease of grapes
and Phony peach. Growing of grapevine in California, away from
hot spots area are effective in controlling the disease. Cherry mottle
leaf virus and peach mosaic are transmitted by bud mite (Eriophyes
inequalis) and control of mite reduces the disease incidence. Mite is
wind borne and helps in spread of viruses in groves. In California,
Brazil and Eastern United States, the success of control of brown rot
Citation: Thind SK. Principles of disease management in fruit crops. Int Clin Pathol J. 2017;4(5):123‒137. DOI: 10.15406/icpjl.2017.04.00109
Copyright:
©2017 Thind 129
of stone fruits (Monilinia spp.) largely depends on the management
of Orient fruit moth, Peach twig borer and Mediterranean fruit fly.62
The surgical treatments in fruit trees are generally performed in cool
weather when vectors are inactive. Ceratocystis canker in stone fruits
are mainly spread by Nitidulid beetle and Drosophila fly vectors.
These insects are attracted to fresh bark wounds where they deposit the
spores of the pathogen and then they feed on resultant fungal colonies.
The disease is controlled by excluding them from fresh wound.
Bark injuries attract more vectors and develop more infection
than uninjured bark. Cherry rasp leaf virus and peach rosette mosaic
virus are transmitted by Dagger nematode. Use of fumigants for the
control of nematode vector help in reducing the viruses in the orchard.
Control of mealy bug helps in reducing the incidence of little cheery
virus which act as its vector. Rigorous spraying for aphid may delay
the spread of plum pox virus. Incidence of papaya ring spot virus can
be reduced by planting new plants at least 375ft away from the main
orchard.63 Physical barrier to avoid any contact by winged aphids with
papaya seedlings postpones the occurrence of PRSV when susceptible
cultivars are grown. Papaya should be grown in an isolated area
having limited cucurbits or old papaya so that plants are subjected to
low viral inoculum.
Spraying suitable insecticides for the control of mealy bug vector
and ants could reduce the incidence of pineapple wilt virus. Some
time sticky yellow polyethylene sheets are used around the main crop
for attracting and sticking of air borne vector (aphids and whitefly). It
helps in reducing the incoming population of vector as well as disease
inoculum reaching the main crop.64 Red lady variety of papaya can
be successfully grown under protected condition and plants remained
completely free from Papaya leaf curl virus due to protection from
white fly transmission.65 Spray of fosmite for white fly control was
effective in reducing the disease incidence.
Use of disease resistant varieties
Use of resistant varieties is the most effective and safest means
of controlling the crop diseases. Several diseases resistant varieties
have been developed in fruit crops but still a lot of to be achieved
against many important diseases. To overcome conventional breeding,
molecular breeding has been developed by which disease resistant
gene can be identified, cloned and transferred to the desirable cultivars.
Any gene, from wild or unrelated plant species which confers resistant
to the pathogen can be cloned and transferred to cultivars and resistant
varieties can be developed.66–68 The desired genes are introduced into
plants to alter the quantity and quality of their produce as well as to
make them resistant to the pathogens. Peach rot knot nematode can be
managed by using resistant rootstocks like Nemaguard, Floridaguard,
Shalil, S–37, and Okinawa Higamaand Nemared. Plun mariana and
Myrobalan 29C also confers resistant to specific root knot nematode.
A peach cross (Okinawa X Nemaguard) also exhibits resistance to
root lesion namatode (Pratylechus penetrans) and root knot nematode.
Plum on Lovel peach and French pume on Nemaguard rootstocks
gets less damage from bacterial canker. Several apple scab resistant
cultivars viz, Co–op–12, Co–op–13 (Red free), Prima, Priscilla,
macfree, Liberty and Sir Priz have been reported showing complete
field resistance to the disease in Kallu Valley.69 Malus baccata from
Kashmir and Shillong remained free from scab and powdery mildew
diseases of apple.70 Crab apple cultivars and Maharaja Chunth and
Golden Chiense have been found resistant to apple powdery mildew.71
McIntosh, Ec–38729 and Ec–38730 are moderate resistant to powdery
mildew. Lucknow–49 and Allahabad Safeda, Chinese and Philippine
guava is tolerant to wilt disease of guava. Use of resistant rootstocks,

Principles of disease management in fruit crops
Psidium cattleianum var. lucidium and Syzigium cumini (jamum)
could be an effective method of controlling guava wilt.72 Florida and
Costa Rico named Tainung No.5 is tolerant to papaya ring spot. Use of
resistant hybrids, Allahabad Safeda X Banarsi Surkha and Apple color
showed resistance to guava anthracnose.
Seedless lime and Lime kharna (rootstock) are resistant against
citrus bacterial canker. Sweet oranges, mandarin (Kin now) and
tangeloes are more susceptible, whereas Marsh seedless grapefruit,
baramasi lemon and kagzi lime are comparatively resistant to the
infection of citrus ring spot virus.73 Trifoliate impart resistant gene
for citrus viruses. Trifoliate and its hybrids, Rangpur lime, Citranges,
Citron, Kharna khatta are susceptible to exocortis viroid. In contrast to
Rough lemon, Cleopatra, Mandarins, Sweet oranges and Sour orange
are tolerant. The incidence of the disease is low in India due to the
frequent use of the tolerant rootstocks. Rough lemon, Rangpur lime,
Tangelos, Trifoliate oranges and its hybrids, Troyer, Yuma citrange,
Volkameriana has imparted resistance to tristeza.74,75 However, many
tristeza resistant rootstocks are also susceptible to other diseases like
exocortis, blight and Phytophthora.
Kagzi lime Selection, RHR–L–49, 122, 124 and 149, Tenali,
Purma Local and Hybrid ALH–77 (Kazi lime X Nepali Round lemon)
has been found tolerant to citrus canker and tristeza virus.76,77 Tenali
selection was also found free from citrus canker and Phytophthora
diseases.78 Sour orange and Trifoliate oranges are highly tolerant
to citrus Phtytophthora but sour orange is susceptible to tristeza
where as trifoliate are to exocortis. Strains of Rough lemon (Akola)
and Rangpur lime (Akola) have showed better resistance to citrus
Phytophthora. Intergenic hybrid of citrus, CRH–12 (Rangpur lime X
Trifoliate orange) CRH–47 (Cleopatra mandarin X Trifoliate orange),
CHR–57 (Rough lemon X Trifoliate orange) and Fortunella mandarins
(Narangi and Calamondrin) are highly resistant to citrus Phytophthora
and nematodes.79,80 He cultivar Pisang lilin (AA), Sanna chenkadli
(AA), Elarazhiai and Kapoora–valli (AAB) are moderately tolerant
to sigatoka disease of banana. Cavendish banana remains free from
the attack of Panama wilt. All the Vitis species except Vitis vinifera
have shown resistance to grape bacterial canker. Transgenic Papaya
Plants resistant to papaya ring spot virus (PRSV) can be evolved by
Coat Protein Medicated Protection (CPMP) through the transfer and
expression of PRSV Coat Protein (CP) gene. Four transgenic papaya
plant lines containing PRSV Coat Protein (CP) gene showed resistance
to the virus and one line was completely resistant.81 Of the Zaihadi,
Hallawi, thory, Barhee, Degletnor, Khalasa, Shamran, Hayani,
Khadrawi and Medjol date palm cultivars, Zahidi was found resistant
where as Medjol was found highly susceptible to the Graphiola leaf
spot diseases.82 Out of the eight different rootstocks screened against
citrus Phytophthora foot rot, Pectinifera was found resistant while
Cleopatra was highly susceptible to the disease.83,84
Thermotherapy
Heat treatments have been used for reducing or eliminating the
inoculum in propagative plant parts or their products and in the soil
by sterilization and solarization. Soil is sterilized in the container by
passing steam under pressure. Most of the pathogen is usually killed
at temperature between 60 to 72oC. Chemotherapeutic treatments are
given through steam under pressure, hot water, hot air and moist hot
air. Apple chlorotic leaf virus can be managed by thermo–therapeutic
treatment at 37oC for 4weeks or more. Exposure of infected bud–
wood at 50oC for 10minutes helps in controlling Plum line pattern
Citation: Thind SK. Principles of disease management in fruit crops. Int Clin Pathol J. 2017;4(5):123‒137. DOI: 10.15406/icpjl.2017.04.00109
Copyright:
©2017 Thind 130
virus. Plum and Peach mosaic virus can be eliminated by keeping
infected plants at 36oC for 4weeks. Dipping of bunchy top infected
banana suckers in hot water at 70oC for 120minutes able to reduce
the disease upto 10%. Banana mosaic virus can be controlled by
exposing infected suckers to heat therapy at 38–40oC for 14days prior
to meristem culture.85 Dry heat treatment at 40oC for one day found
effective in curing the infected suckers.
Citrus greening bacterium in the infected bud wood can be
controlled by exposing the bud sticks to moist hot air at 47oC for 2 or
4hours or by keeping the pot plants at 38–40oC for three weeks. Moist
hot air exposure at 45oC for 120minutes helps in eliminating the citrus
ring spot virus from the infected buds. Treatment of citrus nursery
stock with hot water helps in killing the nematode (Radopholus
similis) present inside the rootstocks. Low temperature treatments
(refrigeration) inhibit or retard the growth and activity of pathogen
and helps in managing the post harvest diseases of fruit crops.
Perishable fruits like Peach; Plum should be refrigerated soon after
harvest. Sanitary selection combined with heat therapy is a powerful
tool in reducing the incidence of Grape fan leaf virus. Dormant grape
cuttings when immersed in water at 45oC for 3hrs, kills the Pierce’s
disease bacterium (Goheen and Hopkins, 1998). Hot water treatment
of infected seedlings at 45oC for one hour helps in reducing the apple
white root rot disease. Artificial ripening at 35oC is used in Australia
to control brown rot of stone fruits. Pineapple wilt virus infected
planting material could be freed from virus by exposing them to hot
water (50oC for one hour) or dry heat (55oC for one hour) treatments.
Solarization of soil during bright sunny days in summer months by
covering the soil with polyethylene sheet may helps inactivating the
soil borne diseases caused by fungi, bacteria and nematode near the
soil surface. The temperature of polyethylene covered moist soil is
increased 10–15oC than to uncovered soil.
Quarantine and legislations
Uarantine is the legal restriction on the introduction, movement and
spread of a new pathogen to the disease free virgin area. Mandatory
Bud–wood certification, crop inspection and establishing orchards in
region unfavorable for pathogen are the quarantine measures which
helps a lot in preventing the spread of the diseases to new unaffected
area. The term quarantine means ‘A forty day period’. Earlier this
was used for the period of detention of ship arriving from countries
where diseases like bubonic, plague, cholera and yellow fever were
endemic. The plant quarantine can be defined as “the utilization of
knowledge by an authority constituted by law, to prevent the entry
or spread of injurious plant pests as a service in the public interest”.
Without quarantine measures a new pest, disease or weeds enter a
new country and can multiply and spread to become dangerous to
the crop in that country. Many fruit diseases like Downy mildew
of grapes (Plasmopara viticola) from America to France, Chestnut
blight (Endothia parasitica) from Asia to USA, Fire blight of apple
and pear from England to India (established in U.P.), Bunchy top of
banana from Sri Lanka to India (established in Kerala, Orrisa, West
bengal and Assam), Apple scab (Venturia inaequalis) from small area
of Jammu and Kashmir to wide spread in Himachal Pradesh, Crown
gall of apple and pearls from England to India, Powdery mildew of
grapes USA to England and Citrus canker from Asia to USA have got
introduced from one region to other causing serious damage to fruit
industry. The legislative measures to prevent the entry of crop pests
and diseases were enacted in 1914 under the DIP Act (Destructive
Insect and Pests Act) and were passed by the Government of India

Principles of disease management in fruit crops
on February 3, 1914. The DIP Act rests with the Director of Plant
Protection Quarantine and storage under the Ministry of Agriculture.
This organization looks after the bulk import and export of seed and
planting materials and having recognized 26 ports (9 sea ports, 10 air
ports and 7 land frontiers) for efficient functioning. This DIP Act has
the responsibility to take necessary steps and to regulate the interstate
movement of plants and planting material in order to prevent the
further spread of destructive pests that have already entered the
country.
To pass through the quarantine ports, carried plant material or
products from a particular country should be accompanied with the
Phytosanitary Certificate issued by the competent authorities. The
Government of India also approved three other institutions; NBPGR–
National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources, New Delhi, FRI– Forest
Research Institute, Dehradun and BSI–Botanical Survey of India,
Kolkata for quarantine measures. The NBPGR involves in processing
of germplasms, seed, plant material of agriculture, horticulture and
silviculture crops, while FRI for forests plants and BSI for other
economical plants. The Embryo Quarantine ban the import of plant
material from a particular country having disease while Domestic
Quarantine prevents the entry of pathogen from one state to another
within the country. Presently, domestic quarantine against four
diseases namely potato wart from 1959, Banana bunchy top from
1959, Banana mosaic from 1961 and Apple scab from 1979 and two
pests; Fluted scales from 1959 and nematode Globodera rostochiensis
from 1983 exits and prevent the spread of these pests from infected
to unaffected area. Fortunately, by timely action plan of domestic
quarantine has prevented the spread of golden nematode and wart
disease of potato to other parts of India. With certain limitations,
banana bunchy top has spread at a fast rate in Kerala. Restriction in
the movement of planting materials like potato seeds (wart) from West
Bengal and golden nematode from Nilgiris of Tamil Nadu, Kathae
disease of cardamom from Anamali hills of Kerala, banana bunchy
top and mosaic infected suckers from Gujrat, Maharashtra and Kerala
and apple scab from Himachal Pradesh has resulted in the checking
the spread of these diseases to other unaffected areas of India.86,87
In India, we have no specific regulation for nurseries and
certification of plants used for nursery propagation and their sale to the
growers. For the production of citrus plants a number of unauthorized
nurseries are operating in the Punjab state without having certified
“Mother or Foundation Block” for bud wood. More over they are not
also having sufficient Rough lemon plants (Citrus jambhiri Lush)
for raising of rootstocks seedlings that imparts resistance to number
of citrus diseases. Strict legislative measures should be enforced
on the unauthorized nurseries and sale of nursery plants raised by
unscientific means. Mandatory Bud wood Certification Programmed
should be strengthened in India for reviving the citrus industry.88
Rising of citrus nurseries free of Phytophthora on tolerant rootstock
helps in minimizing the introduction of the disease in virgin area. The
pathogens survive in the soil and along with earthen ball (Gachi) for
new planting, get introduced in to the disease free area.
The most dramatic and successful examples of fruit virus control by
quarantine is banana bunchy top virus. Strict quarantine measures also
helps in exclusion of panama Fusarium wilt disease of banana as the
primary inoculum comes from the infected rhizomes. Phytosanitary
measures are necessary to prevent the spread of moko bacterial disease.
Fruit should not be transferred from one country to another. Pierce’s
disease of grapevines spread can be checked following restriction in
Citation: Thind SK. Principles of disease management in fruit crops. Int Clin Pathol J. 2017;4(5):123‒137. DOI: 10.15406/icpjl.2017.04.00109
Copyright:
©2017 Thind 131
the movement of infected planting material in California. Prohibition
on the importation of little cherry infected ornamental cherries and
use of virus free planting material have greatly reduced the spread of
little cherry virus in British Columbia. In Autralia, all introduction of
grapevines propagative material are treated with hot water and grown
in quarantine for inspection of bacterial wilt blight (Xanthomonas
ampelina) to avoid the inadvertent introduction of the disease.
Biological control
The natural death of the pathogen is the best means for checking
various crop diseases. Biological means usually exploit the
microorganism for the control of harmful pathogens causing plant
diseases without disturbing the ecological balance. Use of parasites
and predators (biocontrol agents) which can eradicate or reduce the
pathogen inoculum are helpful in managing the crop diseases. Various
bicontrol agents like Trichoderma spp., Gliocladium, Verticillium
spp., Fusarium spp., Aspergillus spp., Bacillus subtilis, Agrobacterium
spp., Pseudomonas spp. has been used successfully for the control
of orchard and forest pathogens.89 The excellent control of bacterial
crown gall disease of grapevine, pome and stone fruits by biological
agent has been achieved by the use of strain of K 84 and its derivates
K 1026 of Agrobacterium radibactor. The endophytic bacteria from
xylem sap of grapevine showed antagonstic activity against a range
of tumergenic bacterium, Agrobacterium tumefaciens.90 These
strains produce Agricin 84 that kill A. tumefaciens and prevents
the disease. Commercial preparation are available that provides a
therapeutic treatment for galls. E. agglomerans, Rahnella azuatilis
and Pseudomonas spp have been found strongly inhibitory to
Agrobacterium vitis which produces gall in grapevines.
Bioagents are more suited for the control of soil borne pathogens
(Pythium, Phytophthora, Rhizoctonia, Fusarium, Sclerotium) and
Trichoderma spp and Gliocladium spp. are the most extensively used
mycoparasities. They occur in soil worldwide and are effective in
controlling soil borne diseases like root rot, damping–off, wilt etc.
Oospores of Pythium, Phytophthora and downy mildew fungi are
vulnerable to a great variety of Dactylella spp. and Trochoderma
spp. etc. Trichoderma harzianum, T. viride, T. koningi, Pseudomonas
putida and Myrothecium roroidum provided effective control of citrus
Phytophthora. Pseudomonas putida reduced the citrus Phytophthora
soil population (41–66%) and root infection (22 %) for three month in
citrus nursery.91 Integration of these bioagents with specific fungicides
(metalaxyl, Fosetyl Al–Aliette) improves the efficiency in controlling
the disease. Trichoderma parasitize the other fungi and lethal action is
by the secretion of antibiotic substances like ‘viridin’ and ‘gliotoxin’.
Citrus root rot can be reduced by using T. viride which killed 30 % of
the fungus Armillaria mellea. Panama wilt of banana can be controlled
by exploiting Pseudomonas fluorescence. Colonization of banana wilt
fungus (Fusarium oxysporum f sp. Cubense) race 4 by bacterium
Burkholderia cepacia has also been found.92 Similarly, moko
bacterial wilt of banana control by using P. fluorescence and Bacillus
spp.93 The Paecilomyces lilacinus, fungal bioagents also effectively
reduced root knot nematodes in banana.94 Various fungal antagonist,
Ophiostoma spp, Chaetomium sp, Aureobasidium sp. and Phoma spp.
inhibit the growth of the apple scab fungus.95 Bacillus subtilis and
Trichoderma koningii have been used for controlling apple canker.96
These agents suppress the ascosporic and conidial production of apple
scab fungus in fallen and growing leaves. B. subtilis and P. fluorescens
significantly lowered the disease symptoms of citrus mal secco
disease (Phoma tracheiphila) and the stem inoculated sour orange
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Principles of disease management in fruit crops ©2017 Thind 132

seedlings maintained higher population of these bio–control agents
of the host plant.97 B. subtilis isolated from xylem fluid of chestnut
suppressed the growth of chestnut blight pathogen (Cryophonectria
parasitica) and reduced the lesion area on stem when applied 3days
prior to fungal challenge in vitro.98
The rhizobacteria fluorescent Pseudomonas have been successfully
used as seed inoculants for the control of plant pathogens. The
mechanism of control has been found to be competition for iron
between the biocontrol agent and plant pathogen. They produce
extracellular ‘Siderophores’ (microbial iron transport agents) which
complex the iron and make it less available for the plant pathogens.
Pseudomonas fluorescens is antagonistic to Rhizoctonia solani and
Sclerotium spp. and can be used for commercial applications. Seed
can be coated with this bioagent and is called seed bacterization.99
Application of Pseudomonas fluorescens to citrus plants is found to
reduce the incidence of bacterial canker drastically.
For the control of chestnut blight (Endothia parasitica) hypovirulent
strains was applied on the trees to cut down the disease incidence
within ten years. Virulent strains of the pathogenic fungus can be
converted into hypo virulent strain by transferring the hypovirulent
character from a hypo virulent strain to virulent strain of the fungus
using virus transmission factor (mycovirus). The mycovirus can cause
hypovirulence (decrease in virulence of the pathogenic fungi) or even
death of the fungus. In grapevines, wounds dressing preparation of
Trichoderma are used for the control of Chlorotic vine leaf curl.
Inoculation of pruning wounds with non–pathogenic Bacillus subtilis
reduced the apple canker (Nectria galligena) disease to 80 %.
Cross protection is also used to protect a plant inoculated with mild
strain from infection of severe strain of the same virus that causes
more severe symptoms and loses. The susceptible cultivars are cross–
protected against the more challenging isolates. Cross protection has
been successfully used for the control of Citrus tristeza virus, papaya
ring spot virus and banana bunchy top virus. Citrus tristeza control
with mild strain of citrus trustees virus has been used on Peru Sweet
orange in Brazil, Grapefruit in Australia, Grapefruit and Sweet orange
in South Africa and Hassaku Dwarf in Japan. In India, Acid limes
are cross–protected against severe strain of CTV and gave more yield
than un–inoculated control and severe strain.100,101 In Northern India,
existence of mild strain might be giving cross protection against
severe and devastating strains. Citrus Improvement Programmed
in South Africa supplies the cross–protected trees of high quality
of Grapefruit and Sweet orange under bud–wood certification
Table 1 List of agro-chemicals generally used in managing the various fruit diseases
programmed to the growers. The combined use of preimmunized
grapefruit with mild isolate of tristeza and tolerant rootstock has
protected the Grapefruit industry in South Africa from devastation. To
date, cross protection appear to be more promising in preventing stem
pitting damage from CTV. The mild strain (G6–G9) of citrus greening
pathogen provided cross protection against severe strain (G2) when
inoculated to pineapple sweet orange and grapefruit seedlings. The
protected seedlings showed more height, girth, leaves and inter–nodal
distance.102 A mild strain of bunchy top virus of banana is wide spread
in Fiji and can be used for cross protection.103 This natural mild strain
protection has probably been greatest salvation of banana industry in
Fiji. Cross protection has also been tried for papaya ring spot virus.
Chemical control
Application of chemicals is still the principle method of managing
number of plant diseases. Chemicals are used as fungicides throughout
the world for combating various diseases. For the demand to feed
the increasing population and to get more return per unit area, have
increased the necessity for the regular use of fungicides. The invention
of Bordeaux mixture (copper sulphate+lime) by Millard in France in
1882 for the control of downy mildew of grapes gained the importance
of using fungicides. This unique and versatile mixture was later found
effective against several diseases and is still widely used to control
the number of diseases of many fruit crops. This mixture, besides
controlling number of fungal diseases, is also found effective in
reducing the incidence of certain bacterial diseases like citrus canker.
Since then a number of fungicides belonging to different chemical
groups have been developed and effectively applied for the control
various plant diseases.104,105 About 150 different chemicals are used as
fungicides throughout the world. The important different fungicides
used in managing various fruit diseases are given in (Table1). The
chemicals used in crop protection are called Pesticides and depending
on the kind of pathogen they affect, the chemicals are called
fungicides–fungi; bactericides–bacteria; viricides–virus; insecticides–
insects; acaroids–mites, rodenticides–rats, molluscicides–snails
and slugs, weedicides–weeds and antibiotics–fungi, bacteria, viral,
mycoplasmal infection.106 An ideal pesticide should be fool proof,
highly toxic to pathogen at lower concentration but safer to human
beings or animals, cheaper, easily available, persistent, easy spreading
nature, easy to handle and application, stable, simple to prepare, have
high tenacity on the host surface and compatible with other materials
used in plant disease control.107–111

Group Name of chemicals Disease control

I. Surface protectants
1.Sulphur fungicides
a. Inorganic Sulphur Fungicides
Elemental sulphur
Lime sulphur
b.Organic sulphur
fungicides
Dust and wettable sulphur
Mixture of Ca-polysulphide
& Calcium thiosulphate
Ziram, ferbam, thiram, Zineb,
Nabam, dithane
Powdery mildew of apple, citrus,
grapes, mango, beer, peach brown rot, apple scab etc.
Leaf spots, blight, anthracnose, rusts, damping-off, cankers, brown rot,
leaf curl, root rot, short hole, downy mildew.

2. Copper fungicides

Citation: Thind SK. Principles of disease management in fruit crops. Int Clin Pathol J. 2017;4(5):123‒137. DOI: 10.15406/icpjl.2017.04.00109
 Copyright:
Principles of disease management in fruit crops ©2017 Thind 133

Table Continued

Group Name of chemicals Disease control

a. Copper sulphate
b. Copper carbonate
c. Copper oxychloride
(COC)
d. cuprous oxide
preparation
e. Copper hydroxide
Bordeaux mixture, paste, paint,
Scab, leaf spots. blight, anthracnose short hole, downy mildew, cankers
Burgundy mixture, chestnut
and foot rot/gummosis
compound
Chaubattia paste
Fytolan, blitox, blue copper
Perenox, fungimar
Kocide

3.Mercurial fungicides

a. Inorganic Mercuric & mercurous chloride Seed and soil borne diseases of fruit crops

b. Organic

Ethyl mercury chloride Ceresan, granosen

Phenyl mercury chloride Ceresan, gallotox

4.Quinone fungicides Chloranil, Dichlone Apple scab, peach leaf curl, anthracnose

5.Heterocyclic
nitrogenous Captan, foltaf, captafol (difolatan) Scab, leaf spots. rots, leaf curl,
compounds
blights, moulds, cankers, anthracnose, Phytophthora

II. First generation systemic fungicides

Citrus fruit drop, wilts, blight, anthracnose, downy & powdery mildew,
a. Benzimidazole fungicides (MBC)
damping-off, root rot, collar rot, fruit rot, seed and soil borne diseases
Benomyl Benlate
Carbendazim Bavistin
b. Thiophanate methyl Topsin M, Roko
c. Thiabendazole Mertect

d. Oxathiins (Carboxanilides or anilides) Smuts, rusts and root diseases

- carboxin Vitavax

- oxycarboxin
e. Hydroxypyrimidines
f. Organ phosphorous
Plantvax
Etherimol, ditherimol,
Powdery mildew of grapes, apple, peach, sigatoka of banana
Bupirimate, fenarimol
Triamophos, kitazin, Powdery mildew, blast diseases

hinosan

g. Morpholines Tridemorph-calixin, dodemorph Powdery mildew, rusts, leaf spot

III. Second generation systemic fungicides

Ridomil, apron patafol, ridomil
a. Phenyl amides Citrus Phytophthora, mildew, damping-off downy
gold, parlay
Metalaxyl, furaxaxyl, benalaxyl,

ofuracecyprofuram
b.
Cymoxanil (Curzate m 8) Citrus Phytophthora and downy
Cyanoacetamideoximes
mildew of grapes
c. Alkylphosphonates Aliette Citrus Phytophthora, grapes downy mildew
Fosetyl aluminum
d. Cinnamic acid
dimethomorph Phythium & root diseases
derivates

Citation: Thind SK. Principles of disease management in fruit crops. Int Clin Pathol J. 2017;4(5):123‒137. DOI: 10.15406/icpjl.2017.04.00109

Principles of disease management in fruit crops
Table Continued
Group
e. Carbamates
f. Sterol Biosynthesis Inhibitors (SBIs or EBIs)
a.Triazoles
b. Imidazole
c. Triforine
d. Pyrimidine
e. Phenyl carbamates
f. Benzene compounds
IV. New generation fungicides with novel modes of action
a. Strobilurins obtained
Kresoxim – methyl Trifloxystrobin
from wild
mushroom Strobilurus tenacellus
b. Anilinopyrimidines
c. Oxazolidinediones
d. Phenoxyquinolines
e. spiroketalamines
V. Antibiotics
a. Aureofungin
b. Cycloheximide
c. Griseofulvin
d. Streptomycin
sulphate
e. Tetracyclines
f. Agrimycin –100
g. Bacterimycin 2000
VI. Others
a. Soil Fumigants
b. oils
c. Plant activators
d. Homeopathic drugs
e. Plant products/
extracts
Citation: Thind SK. Principles of disease management in fruit crops. Int Clin Pathol J. 2017;4(5):123‒137. DOI: 10.15406/icpjl.2017.04.00109
Name of chemicals
Prothocarb, propamocarb
Triadimefon – Bayleton
Bitertanol - Baycor
Etaconazol
Propiconazole –Tilt
Hexaconazole - Contaf
Penconazole - Topas
Imazalil
Piperazine
Fenarimol
Diethafencarb, MDPC
Dinocap –Karathane
Dodine - cyprex
Binapacryl – morocide
Chinomethionate-morestan
Fluazinam
Quintozene – brassicol,
PCNB, chloroneb
Mepanipyrim, pyrimethnil
Famoxadone (DPX–JE 874)
Quinoxyfen (DE -795)
Spiroxamine (KWG-4168)
Aureofungin Sol
Actidione
Griseofulvin
Phytomycin, streptocycline
Terramycin, aureomycin,
actinomycin
Streptomycin sulphate + terramyci
Bromonitropropane,
bionol –100 G
Formalin, carbon disulphide,
chloropicrin, methyl bromide, DD mixture, dzomet
Mineral oils , glyceride oil of
plants, synthetic oil
Benzothiadiazole –Bion
Thuja, cedron
Neem & sorgham extracts
Copyright:
©2017 Thind 134
Disease control
Phythium, Phytophthora and fruit downy mildews
Powdery mildews of apple, ber, grapes, mango, citrus & scab,
Apple & citrus scab, leaf spots,
Leaf spots, scabs, die-back
Powdery mildews, scab, leaf spot Grapes powdery mildew
Post harvest fruit dips
Powdery mildew, scab, brown fruit rot
Powdery mildew of grapes, apple, Peach, apple scab, banana sigstoka
Apple scab and MBC resistant pathogen
Powdery mildews grapes, mango, beer
Apple scab, peach leaf curl, brown rots
Apple powdery mildew
Apple powdery mildew
Apple scab, anthracnose, Phytophthora
Root rots, collar rots, damping-off
Apple scab, powdery mildew and downy mildew of grapes
Apple scab, grapes fruit rot
Grapes downy mildew, leaf spots
Grapevine powdery mildew
Grape powdery mildew
Citrus gumosis & fruit drop, fruit rot, coconut wilt, apple white root rot,
peach brown rot, cankers, mildews
Leaf spots, powdery mildews
Mango powdery mildew
Citrus & stone fruit cankers
Citrus greening, coconut yellow, peach X disease, pear decline
Bacterial diseases, cankers
Citrus canker
Soil borne diseases of fungi, bacteria, nematodes etc.
Sigatoka of banana, citrus greasy spot, grape downy mildew, sooty mould
Sigatoka disease of banana
Papaya viruses, citrus ring spot, citrus greening
Citrus ring spot virus
 Copyright:
Principles of disease management in fruit crops ©2017 Thind 135

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