Presentation on

“PCRES: Module VI: OCEAN ENERGY &

SMALL HYDRO POWER CONVERSION
SYSTEMS”
References:
1. Sawhney G. S., Non-Conventional Energy Resources, PHI Learning, 20123. F A
2. G.D. Rai, “Non Conventional Energy Sources” Khanna Publishers
3. Khan B. H., “Non-Conventional Energy Resources”, Tata McGraw Hill, 2009
4. D. P. Kothari, K. C. Singhal and Rakesh R, “ Renewable Energy Sources and
Emerging Technologies,” PHI 2013
5. Farret and M G Simoes , “Integration of Alternative Sources of Energy” IEEE
Press
6. John Twidell and Tony Weir, “Renewable Energy Resources,” 2nd Ed, Taylor &
Francis
OCEAN BASED ENERGY
CONVERSION SYSTEMS

a) OCEAN THERMAL ENERGY

b) WAVE ENRGY
c) TIDAL ENERGY
 OTEC: (OCEAN THERMAL ENERGY CONVERSION)
• Derived from solar energy- indirect method
• Ocean is the world’s largest solar collector.
• Moderate temperature gradient from top surface to bottom of the ocean
• Surface water as heat source and deep water as heat sink
• Min 20oC difference is available- mainly at tropical areas
• Low temperature operation
• Low efficiency, but large potential
• Upper surface as collector of solar heat- infinite heat storage reservoir
• Based on Lambert’s law of absorption
• Radiation intensity falls exponentially with depth,
• Heat engine efficiency decided by Carnot engine,
• η = ( T1- T2)/ T1 , T in Kelvin
6.67% max- actually 2% only in practice
• 20-25 oC difference for steam engine,
• Min 20oC is required for OTEC
• OTEC Power plant can be installed as shore (land) or offshore (floating).
• ….. OTEC systems if researched for improved technologies, can prove to
be a very dependable RES.
Lambert’s law of absorption:
Each layer of equal thickness absorbs the same fraction of light (or so) that passes
through it.
• Ocean surface portion acts as the solar heat collector
• Radiation intensity I at a depth y, wrt ocean surface intensity Io,
- dI/dy = µIo, I = Io e-µy
µ: extinction/ absorption coeff,
0.5/m for salty sea water, 0.05/m for fresh water
• Temp changes slowly near the surface-
then remains constant at 200 m depth-
>200m, temp decreases exponentially-
reaches 4 0C at
• There will be no thermal convection currents
between warmer and cooler water layers
• Thermal conduction at larger depth is also low.
• Hence, >95% absorption occurs within 6m depth

Advantages of OTEC
• Steady/ continuous power-
• Weather independent- season independent
• Low temp operation - requires conventional thermal devices only
• Byproducts as desalinated water and nutrients from marine culture,
• Shoreline or floating construction are possible
• Large potential- Any size is possible

Disadvantages
• Low temp difference, hence low efficiency
• Large plant size required
• Flash evaporator is complex
• Low pressure steam turbine operation is problematic
• Pump, heat exchanger , pipe size etc for large size is problematic
• Long distance cable for power transmission is required
• Plant has to withstand ocean conditions and storms etc
• Possibility of corrosion and biofouling etc- needs algae removal etc
• Greater depth to reach cold water level

Environmental impacts of OTEC
• Marine life may be disturbed (my affect fishes, egg, larvaea etc)
• Plant operation will effect ecosystems, coral, ocean currents etc
• Release of cold water from plant to sea surface will affect marine life
• CO2 in warm water released in open cycle causes green house effect

Power Relations:
• When heat flows from high temperature source to low temperature sink
through an engine/ turbine, a part of the heat is converted into mechanical
energy-
• The turbine drives the generator to produce electrical energy.
• Input power, Pi= ρ Q s ∆T
ρ: density of sea water,
Q: Flow rate of working fluid
s: specific heat of water
∆T: temp difference
• Heat engine output, Po= ηcarnot Pi = (∆T/Th) ( ρ Q s ∆T )
Po= ( ρ Q s /Th ) ( ∆T) 2
• In alarge power plant with capacity of Po=10 MW
let, T1=Th=24 oC, T2=4 oC, ,
then flow rate: Q= 106 (24+273)/(1025x 4200x 202) =6210 tons/ hr: large
Large pumping rate is required due to low temp difference.
• Large flow rate and large size for heat exchanger, evaporator, condenser,
turbine etc are difficult to handle.
• Due to all non idealness in heat exchanger, evaporator, condenser etc and
practical difficulties, the attained/actual efficiency and power output will be
low (2-3% only) and power output will be low.

Types of OTEC:
• Operation: i) Open Cycle, and
ii) Closed Cycle.
• Installation: i) Shore type, and
ii) Offshore (Ship option/ floating) type.
 OPEN CYCLE OTEC: (Claude Cycle)
• Ocean water is used in turbines-
• No additional refrigerant is used-
• We need to bring warm water (from ocean) surface and the cold water
(from the deep point) to the plant through pipes and pumps-
• Air etc will be removed first-
• Flash evaporator is used to convert warm water to steam
• Flash evaporation take place under partial vacuum-
• Low pressure steam is separated and given to turbine-
• Turbine drives generator to produce electricity-
• Turbine exhaust is condensed in direct contact condenser using cold
water from sea-
• The condensed steam can be disposed to the sea.
• Surface contact condenser also can be used, where desalinated water
will be the output.
Schematic Diagram for Open Cycle OTEC
 CLOSED CYCLE OTEC: (Anderson Cycle)
• Additional refrigerant such as ammonia, propane etc are used as
working fluid – should have low boiling point -
• Warm water is used to evaporate this low BP working fluid-
• Evaporator converts liquid NH3 into vapour-
• the remaining liquid will be collected through separator- for reuse-
• This high pressure vapour is given to turbine-
• Generator coupled to turbine produce electricity
• Turbine exhaust will contain NH3 at low temp-
• Cold water from sea is used to condense NH3 in condenser-
• This liquid NH3 is reused- hence the closed cycle-
• Make up ammonia need to be added-
• The condensed steam can be disposed to the sea.
• The operating pressure is much higher in CC as compared to OC
• Hence, specific volume is much lower,
• Hence turbine and accessories are much smaller in size in CC OTEC –
and hence cheaper.
 Schematic Diagram for Simple Closed Cycle OTEC

Components for a
Closed Cycle OTEC

Shore vs Offshore types
• Shore type is simple and economical-
- Power transmission is easy- minimum cable is required-
- Shore option is cheaper wrt installation, operation, and maintenance
- But feasible only at certain locations (with sharp sea bottom slope) site,
• Off shore is more effective-
- Floating type/ ship based plants are commonly used-
- Preferred for isolated use-
- But, requires lengthy submarine cables-
- Transmission cost is high
- Electricity can be used to produce liquid hydrogen, ammonia etc for
storage and further use. (refer internet/ references for arrangements)

Applications of OTEC Plants:
• Power generation as a renewable source application
• Co generation: Electricity along with fresh water and /or H2 or Ammonia.
• By products: Generated electricity can be used for electrolysis to produce
H2 – this can be stored as liquid H2 and be transported for Fuel cell etc.
- can be used to produce ammonia for fertilsers etc- Al is another by
product. like H2/ ammonia/Al-
• Cold water collection may provide costly pearls-
• Cold water is nutrient rich and can be used for acqua culture.

BIOFOULING
• Deposition biological micro organisms occurs inside the pipes and
components during water pumping-
• This form sticky layers and continuously grows-
• The growth of microorganism inside the pipes/ condensors / heat
exchangers etc act as Bioimpurity-
• It increases thermal resistance- Reduces the heat exchanger capacity-
reduces efficiency-
• More in Closed cycle plants-
• Biofouling can be reduced by mechanical cleaning and higer puming
rate-
- chemical cleaning like chlorination,
- its effect is less with Copper type lininig etc-
- use of biocide type additives .
• Additives /chlorine/ biocide etc should be controlled to avoid
pollution….
 WAVE ENERGY:
• Ocean waves are caused by transfer of wind energy to the water
surface
• Caused by frictional action of the winds on the ocean surface
• Depends on wind speed and distance of interaction
• Wave energy depends on amplitude and period of the wave
• Consists of KE from wave propagation and PE from water mass
lifting
• Wave velocity depends on wavelength
• The longer the wavelength, the faster it moves
• Once formed, wave travel even if the wind dies out
• 10 m height, 100m wavelength,5-15 kW/m- crest
• Wavelength λ= 1.5613 T2
• Wave velocity u= λ / T
λ
• Wave velocity does not depend on amplitude
Trough
Wave energy:
• The potential energy (PE) is due to the water mass lifted above the sea level.
• The kinetic energy (KE) due to the wave motion.
• In harmonic motion /waves average KE and PE are equal.
• Total energy E = KE+PE = 2 (½ ρ g a2 A)
E = ½ ρ g a2 A Joules
a: amplitude of the wave,
A= area of wave = λ B
λ = wave length
B=wave width
f = frequency
Energy density E/A = ½ ρ g a2 A J/m2
Power density P/A = ½ ρ g a2 f W/m2
• Wave height H= 0.085 U2
U: wind speed
• Other factors affecting the wave energy
- The higher the wind speed, the higher is the wave energy
- The longer the wavelength, the faster it moves
- The greater the depth of ocean water, the higher the velocity.

Advantages of Wave Energy
• Free and RES
• Continuous power- no storage required
• Pollution free
• Suitable for remote islands, on drilling platforms, ships etc
• WECS helps to reduce erosion

Disadvantages
• Sea water is corrosive- shorter life for equipments
• Algae etc affects the performance
• Affects shipping traffic
• Strong waves may damage the plant
• Costly installation- complicated devices-
• Repair, maintenance and replacement etc are difficult
• Max power is at open sea- it is difficult to install & extract
• May affect marine life
• Slow & irregular motions- difficulty to obtain peak power

Wave Energy Devices:
• Need to convert waves into mechanical energy
• The fluctuating energy need to be smoothed to drive a generator
• Classification based on:
- Location : i) Offshore/ Deep water device
ii) Shoreline device
- Motion : i) Heaving float type
ii) Pitching type
iii) Heaving and Pitching float type

- Mechanism: i) Buoy Type Buoy Type

ii)Dolphin Type
iii)Oscillation Duck.

Buoy Type Machine:
• Basic type-
• Floating device which rises and falls with
ocean wave motion-
• The arrangement is shown
• Up and down motion can be used to drive
a piston linked generator.

Dolphin Type Wave Energy Converter:
• Supporting structure is built in the se bed with piles for strong foundation
• Two generators- one on the top of the structure and the other with buoy
• Wave energy is transferred to generator through the buoy and shaft
• gear arrangement also is used for amplification and continuous rotation of the
generators
• System has two motions
N: Rolling motion and
M: Oscillatory motion)
• 100 kW capacity/ device-
• many can be arranged on
the wave width

Wave based energy installation and anti-erosion works are complementary-

hence economical also.

…..The development of wave energy conversion systems is of prime
importance in the face of present energy crisis..
 TIDAL POWER:
• Tides are produced by gravitational attraction of the moon and Sun
on earth
• Periodic rise and fall of ocean water levels
• Tidal range (height difference) contains Potential Energy
• Tidal range of 5-15m can be used for driving turbine-generator set
Effect of Moon as Tide Spring tide Neap Side

Tide variation
in Lunar month
• One lunar month is 29.33 days.
• One tidal day is 24 hr 50 minutes
• One tidal cycle is 12 hr 25 minutes-
• ie, 2 tidal cycles in a day
• Periodic and predictable
• Though the cycle follows a sinusoidal like pattern, tidal range vary from time
to time- the amplitude may not be constant -

Tidal Energy Conversion
The schematic is shown for typical Tidal power plants.
Major components are:
• A barrage/ Dam/Dyke
• Sluice gate
• Basin Scheme
• Low head Turbine
• Power house
Low Tide Plant High tide Plant

Tidal Energy
• Tidal energy, E = ½ ρ g A R2 Joules
ρ: Sea water density: 1025 kg/m3
A: basin surface area
R: tidal range in meters
• Average theoretical power, Pav= E /(6 hr 12.5 minute) =
• Pav= 225 A R2 kW

Will be wasted, if not harvested properly:
• Cosmic phenomenon
• Energy is not derived from sun
• Renewable and long lasting!!
• Very little is understood about the effects and impacts
• Tidal technology is in its growing stage, and still going through
evaluation and experimental stage.
– R & D activities are to be undertaken to provide improvements
in design, materials, operations, economics and utility.

Classification of Tidal Power Plants:
• Based on Mode /Cycle: a) Single mode: i) Rising Tide (Flood tide)
ii) Ebb tide (Falling/ low tide)
b) Double Cycle /mode (Two way generation)
• Based on Basin: a) Single Basin i) Single Cycle
ii) Double Cycle
b) Double Basin i) Linked basin
ii) Paired basin.

Single Basin-Single Cycle :
• Oldest form- simple-
• Either only Rising tide or Falling tide mode
• One way operation-

Flood Tide Mode Plant:
• Rising tide/ Flood tide mode only-
• During high tide, ocean water flows into the
basin through generator port- sluice gate
is closed.
• Turbine and generator operated during the
rapid filling of the basin-
• Generally around 7 hrs in one tiday day
• Output is variable during the operation
• Output is intermittent also.

Ebb Tide Mode Plant:
• Falling tide/ Ebb tide mode only-
• The basin is filled through the sluice during high
tide- reservoir is getting filled –
• Sluice gate is closed after the water head is achieved-
• Once the sufficient head is attained, water is
released through the turbine to the ocean
• Generation continues till low tide change to high tide gain- and repeats-

Single Basin - Double Cycle Plant
• Combination both Ebb tide and Flood tide modes
• Both the filling and emptying of reservoir/ basin are used to generate power
• Reversible turbine capable of operating in both directions is required
• Little bit costly
• but, power output increases
• Larger period of operation.

Double Basin Tidal Power Plant Linked basins
a) Double Basin with Linked basins
• Large basin is converted into two basins of
suitable dimensions-
• High basin at higher level and Low basin at
lower level
• Three barrages as shown- between high
basin & sea, low basin & sea and power plant in
the third one between high and low basins.
• Head of turbine is the difference between high
and low basins
• Upper gate is opened when sea level is higher.
• Lower gate is opened for emptying when the
Paired basins
sea level is lower.
• Generally preferred to meet the peak load by
stroring the water.
b) Double Basin with with Paired basins
• When two tidal sites with difference in water
levels, but at reasonable distance, this scheme
is a better choice.
• One operates during filling and the other during
emptying.
• No exchange of water- but connected electrically.

Advantages of TECS
• Free and inexhaustible RES
• Pollution free
• Dam & plants at bays will not affect villages, does not affect ecology
• No submerging of land
• Definite power- predictable- not affected by weather changes
• Basins can be used for fish farming

Disadvantages
• Limited to natural sites only
• Bays are away from load centre- high transmission cost
• Varying water head- variable power- not continuous
• Costly and time consuming construction
• Removal of sedimentation etc is costly
• Variable power output wrt lunar cycle
• Corrosive nature
• More turbines are required for larger output

Challenges /Feasibility of Tidal Plants:
• Minimal tidal range of 5 m is required for economic operation
• Site & plant should not affect the shipping traffic
• Plan should be protected against high waves/ storms
• Minimum silt/mud/ sludge- silt removal is costly
• Possibly nearer to load centre
• Dam/ basin construction should be minimum.
Small Hydro Plants
Small Hydro Resources:

Issues with Larger Hydro Electric Plant (HEP)
• Larger HEP ( > 10MW) requires larger dams, sites etc-
• affects social and environmental conditions-
• Requires submerging- loss of agricultural land and forests etc
• Rehabilitation of large no of villagers
• Storage of water may affect seismic conditions
• Public attitude… ( /* refer all features of conventional HEP */)

Small Hydro Electric Plant (SHP):
• Nonconventional- < 10 MW- Decentralised
• Suitable for hilly, underdeveloped or remote areas
• Streams in hilly areas etc
• Low gestation period, lower investment
• Small dams
• Local staff/ smaller organizations can run the plants
• Low pollution- minimum environmental problems

Challenges: ????/
SHP for Socio Economic Development……………………
Advantages of SHP:
• Local and low cost installation
• Decentralised- minimum Transmission loss-x lossRES
• Pollution free
• Low gestation period for installation (6-24 months)
• Low operating cost- skilled staff is not required
• Minimum damage to ecology, environment etc
• Can be an augmentation of existing larger plants
Disadvantages: ( /* make a detailed comparison between small & large plant*/ )
• High cost of power per unit
• Isolated areas
• Low load factor
• Seasonal variations etc
• Will be affected by storms, floods etc
Types of Small Hydro Plants:
• Capacity: Micro: < 100kW, Mini: < 1 MW, Small: < 10MW
• Head: Ultra low head: < 3m, Low : 3-30m, Medium:30-75m,
High head: > 75 m
• Independent system- only for power generation
Subordinate system- Not only power output, but for irrigation, drinking
etc also-generally most common.

Concept of SHP:
• Perennial streams in hilly areas or water stored from a moderate
height is made flow through hydraulic turbine
• PE/ KE or both can be converted into rotation
• Minimum construction to protect environment and local living.

Components:
• Diversion Structure: Small dam, barrage structures to divert the
streams to the intake storage- should withstand flood-
• Desilting Tank: To remove and trap the suspended matters, pebbles
to avoid erosion- protect turbines- but velocity reduces
A spill way channel is also provided if required
• Water channel: RCC duct/ steel pipe/ open tiled channel etc-
• Forebay tank: As water reservoir- to store water for 4-6 hr
minimum- to ensure minimum head also-
An overflow path for etc discharge
• Penstock: MS pipe or RCC pipe
• Power house: Turbine with generator (G: synchronous /induction)
• Tail race: Channel to discharge water to the stream back.
Typical Layouts

Power Equation:
Power generated, P= 9.81 Q H ηm
Q: discharge through turbine m3/s
H: head in m
ηm : overall mechanical system efficiency

Water Turbine:
Classification
Types of turbine: ( /* refer ME/ PS text books for more details */ )
• Impulse or Reaction
– Impulse Turbine: PE is converted into KE through nozzle- Fast jet
from the nozzle strikes the vanes
– Reaction Turbine: No nozzles- vanes of turbines are shaped for
nozzle action with guid vanes/ rotor vanes
– Water wheel- Impulse turbine- Francis (radial flow reaction T)-
Kaplan turbines (Axial floe reaction T)
• Specific Speed, ns=n√P / H5/4
• High head Low specific speed
– Low specific Speed: 10-50
• Impulse turbines- high head operation-large discharge
• Pelton
– Medium specific speed: 50-300
• Francis reaction Turbine-moderate head and discharge
– High specific speed: 300-1000
• Kaplan reaction turbine- low head- large discharge
– Bulb Turbine: Turbine with the coupled generator are enclosed in
shell type structure-suitable for low head 1-30 m – suitable for low
depth stream
– Tube Turbine: Modified kaplan turbine for low head <15m-horizontal
shaft- only turbine is placed in the conduit- generator outside-
 Water Turbines- sketches

Bulb Turbine Tube Turbine


Governor:
• Used to run the turbine at constant speed irrespective of load etc
• Reduce or increase water flow through nozzle for injection turbines
• Change the passage between the guide vanes/ runner vanes for flow control for
reaction turbines

Types of Generators:
• AC: Synchronous or Induction generator
• Both isolated and grid tied modes are possible
• Synchronous generator
– For isolated systems
– 2 or more can be synchronised to meet the power requirement
– Can vary the pf
– But, requires AVR or Electronic Load Controller (ELC) for regulation.
• Induction generator
– If state grid is available Induction generator can be selected-
– Low cost- and etc (/* refer the general advantages of 3-ph IM*/)
– reactive excitation from grid- capacitor bank also can be used-hence off grid
operation is also possible.
• DC: In case, only DC loads are present, dc generators also can be used for low
power requirement (<2kW or so)
Adv: No speed problems- easy charging for battery- but have all demerits of
dc systems like commutators, difficulty in voltage transformation etc..

ELC: Electronic Load Controller
• For regulation purpose of generators both input and output are mad constant.
• ie, we need to ensure that that the generator always supplies a constant load.
• Since the actual load vary, an additional Main
G
ballast /dump load is to be provided. Turbine Loads
• Dump load is to be varied according the
ELC Dump
consumer load such that total load is constant. Load
• An ELC senses the frequency/ load variations
and switches appropriate amount of the ballast load as per requirement, to keep
the variations within limits.

R & D works:
It can be seen that there is a large scope to harness abundant potential of small
hydro power in many regions.
A lot of research/ developmental/ experimental works are to be carried out…
• Load utilization and Electronic load controllers
• Variable speed constant frequency generation
• Cost effective turbine for SHP
• Overall cost effectiveness
• Civil construction works
• Solutions to site specific problems
• Option for Socio economic development & sustainable development.
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