Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Training Principles For Power: Take Quiz
Training Principles For Power: Take Quiz
SUMMARY The overall relationship between sport- There is considerable debate concern-
specific movements and the ability to ing which of these characteristics
THE ABILITY TO EXPRESS HIGH
generate high power outputs is well should be the primary training targets
POWER OUTPUTS IS CONSIDERED
documented in the scientific literature when attempting to optimize power
TO BE ONE OF THE FOUNDA-
(4,5,8,60). For example, Hansen et al. output with resistance training inter-
TIONAL CHARACTERISTICS (33) reported that peak power outputs ventions. For example, some authors
UNDERLYING SUCCESSFUL PER- are significantly (p , 0.001) higher in argue that once adequate strength lev-
FORMANCE IN A VARIETY OF Elite Rugby Union players compared els are developed continuing to
SPORTING ACTIVITIES, INCLUDING with their junior counterparts. Similarly, develop this attribute results in dimin-
JUMPING, THROWING, AND Baker (4) suggested that professional ishing returns (17), whereas others
CHANGING DIRECTION. NUMER- Rugby League players (National Rugby argue that maximal strength impacts
OUS TRAINING INTERVENTIONS League) produce significantly higher power generating capacity in a hierar-
HAVE BEEN RECOMMENDED TO power outputs in both upper- and chical manner in which its influence on
ENHANCE THE ATHLETE’S ABILITY lower-body movements compared with power production diminishes as the
TO EXPRESS HIGH POWER OUT- college-aged players (Student Rugby external load decreases (65,66). Con-
PUTS AND IMPROVE THEIR OVER- League). Additionally, Fry and Kraemer ceptually, it is often believed that as
ALL SPORTS PERFORMANCE (25) demonstrated that in American Col- the external load diminishes the influ-
CAPACITY. THIS BRIEF REVIEW legiate Football, strength and power ence of maximal strength decreases
EXAMINES THE FACTORS THAT characteristics differentiate between level and a greater reliance on the rate of
UNDERLIE THE EXPRESSION OF of play, with stronger more powerful ath- force development occurs. This rela-
POWER AND VARIOUS METHODS letes being more prevalent on higher tionship is often used as the central
THAT CAN BE USED TO MAXIMIZE division teams. Similarly, Barker et al. (6) argument for developing power out-
POWER DEVELOPMENT. reported that maximal strength and puts with explosive exercises that are
power-generating capacity is able to dif- performed at what has been termed the
ferentiate between starters and nonstar- “optimal load” (20,42).
INTRODUCTION ters. When examining other sports such Generally, there seem to be 3 main
any sports require the ability as women’s basketball, volleyball, and
M
schools of thought when attempting to
to generate high amounts of softball, significant correlations have been maximize power output (20). The first
force in relatively short peri- found between maximal strength and school suggests that using lower-
ods of time (42,58). The ability to peak power output (r 5 0.719) and agility intensity efforts (,50% of 1 repetition
express high rates of force development T test time (r 5 20.408) (61). When both maximum [RM]) are optimal for the
is often related to an athlete’s overall men (basketball, volleyball) and women development of power generating
strength levels (71) and ability to express (basketball, volleyball, and softball) from a capacity (44,54), whereas the second
high power outputs (27,30). Stone et al. variety of sports were collapsed into one school proposes that higher loads (50–
(71) suggested that the ability to express group, back squat strength was highly 70% 1RM) are required (63,70,81). The
high rates of force development and correlated with peak power (r 5 0.917) third school of thought suggests a mixed
high power outputs are critical perfor- and agility T test time (r 5 20.784). methods approach in which a variety of
mance characteristics central to success Based upon the contemporary body of loads and exercise types are used in
in most sporting events. These abilities scientific knowledge, it is evident that
are considered to be among the most maximal strength, the rate of force devel-
important sports performance charac- opment, and peak power generating KEY WORDS:
teristics, especially in activities that rely capacity are all important attributes that strength; rate of force development;
on jumping, change of direction, and/or need to be developed when implement- strength training
sprinting performance (31,53,71). ing strength and conditioning programs.
2 VOLUME 34 | NUMBER 6 | DECEMBER 2012 Copyright Ó National Strength and Conditioning Association
a periodized fashion to optimize power have been found between these varia-
output (9,20,42,58). bles (27,30).
Although each school of thought offers
compelling rationales for using low- MAXIMAL STRENGTH
load, high-load, or mixed load training Strength should be considered one of
methods, it is often difficult for the the foundational elements required for
strength and conditioning professional the development of power (4,9,55,87)
to determine which methods are the based upon the contemporary litera-
best approach for optimizing maximal ture where stronger athletes are
Figure 1. The basic force-velocity rela-
strength, rate of force development, reported to express higher power out-
tionship. Adapted from
and power generating capacity. There- Kawamori and Haff (42). puts (4,71). One explanation for this
fore, the current brief review is designed relationship relates to the fact that
to explain how power is calculated and stronger individuals are able to gener-
which key training outcome factors are ate forces significantly faster than their
critical for the optimization of power to the maximal power output, it is evi- weaker counterparts (2,30).
generating capacity. In the context of dent that force and velocity are inter- Typically, both weaker and younger
this discussion, specific methods of ele- dependent and that maximal power athletes do not possess the requisite
vating power and how they may be output occurs at compromised levels strength levels for the expression of
incorporated into a periodized training of maximal force and velocity (Figure 2) high power outputs. Therefore, in
plan will be addressed. (42,68). This relationship is clearly these instances, simply increasing
depicted in a traditional vertical jump strength levels can stimulate a resultant
MECHANICAL POWER force, velocity, and power tracing, increase in power output (4,16)
To understand the main training attrib- where peak power does not occur at and overall performance capacity
utes that contribute to maximal power either the points of maximal force or (16,17,32,71) without using classic power
output, it is important to understand the velocity (Figure 3). Ultimately, as the development exercises. Häkkinen and
basic definition of power and how it is athlete tries to accelerate during the Komi (32) offered evidence to sup-
mathematically calculated. Mechanical jumping motion, the time frame for port this contention in that after 24
power is often referred to as the rate the application of force becomes short- weeks of intense strength training
of doing work (45) and is calculated er, which highlights the importance of with loads between 70 and 120% of
by multiplying force by velocity (58) the rate of force development in the 1RM, a 7% increase in vertical jump
expression of power (58). performance, which is representative
Ultimately, 3 key elements must be con- of an increase in power generating
Work sidered when attempting to increase capacity, was noted. Additional sup-
Power 5 port for these findings can be seen in
Time power output. First, it is essential that
overall muscular strength is maximized the work of Cormie et al. (16) where
Force 3 Distance because of its direct relationship with the development of maximal strength
5 was shown to be a more effective
Time the ability to express high rates of force
development and power outputs. Sec- training modality for increasing
ond, it is important to develop the abil- power output during unloaded and
5 Force 3 Velocity:
ity to express high forces in very short loaded jumps with weaker individu-
Based upon these mathematical periods of time, which are reflected by als. Taken collectively, these data
equations, it is evident that the 2 cen- the rate of force development. Finally, it is clearly indicate that with weaker ath-
tral components that impact the ath- important to develop an ability to express letes, strength training that targets the
lete’s ability to generate high power high forces as the velocity of shortening maximization of overall strength lev-
outputs are the ability to apply high increases. Careful inspection of each of els results in significant improvements
levels of force rapidly and express high these elements reveals that there is a in muscular power (4,16) and more
contraction velocities (42). The basic strong interplay between each element importantly overall athletic perfor-
inverse relationship between the force with overall strength levels serving as mance (16,71).
a muscle can generate and the velocity the main driver for the ability to However, once athletes have established
at which it contracts is often depicted express high power outputs (42,58). adequate strength levels, they are then
by a characteristic curve (Figure 1) Support for the interrelationship able to maximize the benefits of incor-
(18,42) in which the amount of force between maximal strength, the rate of porating specific training activities (i.e.,
that can be generated by a concentric force development, and maximal power plyometrics, ballistic exercises, and com-
muscle action decreases as the velocity output is clearly seen in the scientific plex or contrast training) designed to
of movement increases. When related literature where significant correlations optimize power development. In fact,
Figure 2. Force-velocity, force-power, velocity power, and optimal load relationship. Adapted from Newton and Kraemer (58) and
Kawamori and Haff (42).
stronger athletes generally demon- However, it is often difficult to deter- than their weaker counter parts (1.7 or
strate a greater responsiveness to tar- mine when an adequate strength level 1.43x body mass) in vertical (6,71) and
geted power-based training methods has actually been achieved and when horizontal jumping activities (64). Addi-
such as plyometric or explosive exer- a shift in training emphasis to include tionally, Wisløff et al. (86) suggests that
cise training (17). more specialized power development soccer players who can squat .2.03
It is clear that the maximization of mus- strategies can be used. Careful inspec- body mass are significantly faster and
cular strength is a key component of all tion of the literature suggests that ath- able to jump higher than those who
training programs that are designed to letes who squat a minimum of 23 body squat ,2.03 body mass. Recent work
maximize power development capacity. mass can express higher power outputs by Keiner et al. (43) reports that youth
Figure 3. Force, velocity, and power output during a vertical jump. (A) Force, velocity, power output during a vertical jump, (B) Peak
Force, Peak Velocity, Peak Power, and Peak Displacement during a vertical jump.
Figure 5. Isometric force-time curve depicting the rate of force development and maximal force generating capacity. Adapted from
Newton and Kraemer (58).
attempting to maximize the rate of overall strength and their ability to strength levels (16,35,54,76,77), which
force development and power output generate high power outputs under can have significant ramifications
(31). loaded conditions (4,5). Therefore, when working with athletes who must
in these types of athletes, it is impor- express high power outputs under
THE OPTIMAL LOAD AND THE tant to develop the ability to not only loaded conditions. Furthermore, train-
DEVELOPMENT OF STRENGTH express high forces but also generate ing at the optimal load has the inher-
AND POWER high power outputs under loaded ent limitation of only maximizing
The optimal load is the load that elicits conditions. Using loads that are high- power output at or near the load that
the maximal power output for a spe- er than the optimal load increases the is being trained (40,54). This may
cific movement (19,42). It is suggested athlete’s ability to express high power impact sports performance capacity
that the optimal load is an effective by limiting the ability of an athlete to
outputs under loaded conditions (56).
stimulus for improvements in power maximize power output under a variety
For example, Moss et al. (56) report
output (19,40,54,56,76,77,85). However, of loaded conditions (56). This is a lim-
training with higher loads seems
there are very few studies that have sup- itation because many athletes require
(.80% 1RM) to result in superior
ported this contention (40,54,56,85). the ability to produce power under
power outputs under loaded condi-
Conversely, several other studies sug- both “unloaded” and “loaded” condi-
tions (.60% of 1RM) compared with
gest that training at the optimal load is tions. An unloaded condition involves
not more effective than training with training with moderate to low-load
interventions (,30% of 1RM) (56). activities such as sprinting or the squat
heavy loads (16,35) or with mixed-load jump, where an athlete primarily over-
models (76,77) when trying to maximize Because stronger athletes are better
able to express higher power outputs comes the inertia of their body mass
power development. (67). In comparison, a loaded condi-
under loaded conditions, it is evident
Theoretically, training at or around tion may involve activities such as a
that focusing on strength develop-
the optimal load may seem to be collision in contact sports such as
ment is a key component of any
a better way to train for sports perfor- American football, rugby, and wres-
strength training interventions that
mance; the current body of knowl- tling or an athlete changing direction
are preparing athletes in sports such
edge does not convincingly justify where they must apply even greater
as Rugby League, Rugby Union, and
this belief because many athletes forces to change the momentum of
American Football.
require the ability to produce high the system (mass 3 velocity). The sce-
power outputs under loaded condi- When considering overall maximal narios of unloaded versus loaded dem-
tions (4,5). For example, in Rugby strength development, the use of the onstrate why power (force 3 velocity)
League, one of the key differentiators optimal load for power development is important to develop at many loads
between levels of play is the athlete’s results in a muted ability to improve on the force-velocity spectrum.
Although velocity will be compro- this goal is with appropriate sequential methods approach is recommended
mised at higher loads (those above periodization models as well as using when attempting to maximize power
an individual’s optimal load), the warm-up sets that are performed at a output (19,58) (Figure 7).
goal is always to produce the highest variety of submaximal loads. The use of a mixed methods approach
velocity (and therefore power) at any to optimize power-generating capacity
given load during competition or train- MIXED METHODS FOR THE allows for a superior increase in maxi-
ing. Ultimately, for many athletes, a OPTIMIZATION OF POWER mal power output and a greater trans-
continuum of loads are encountered OUTPUT
fer of training effect because of a more
during sporting play making it far more When examining the literature, unidi-
well-rounded development of the
beneficial to develop the ability to max- mensional training approaches that
only focuses on the development of force-velocity relationship (20,76,77).
imize power output across a variety of
strength or power do not maximize Theoretically, the use of low-load
loads. These loads should range from
the development of power, strength high-velocity movements can impact
unloaded to load conditions in order
to develop the entire force-velocity pro- (14,76,78), and overall sports perfor- the high-velocity area of the force-
file (39,67). One key area to accomplish mance capacity. Therefore, a mixed velocity relationship, while heavier
Figure 7. Training method relationship to the development of power, strength, and movement velocity.
Figure 8. Relationship of power zones and various exercises. Data obtained from Kawamori et al. (41), Kirby et al. (44), and
Cormie et al. (13).
loads enhance the high-force portion to a greater degree compared with power (44). In this scenario, it is imperative
of this relationship. Thus, using com- or strength only training. that the athlete has the intent to move
bined methods of training allows for One strategy for employing a mixed with high velocities (7). By lifting these
a more complete adaptation to occur training approach is to use a variety of submaximal warm-up loads “explo-
across the entire force-velocity curve training loads. For example, in the back sively” with the intent to move as
(19,20,76,77). Significant scientific sup- squat, power development can occur quickly as possible, a greater potential
port for the use of mixed methods is between loads of 30–70% of 1RM, for developing power across a variety
present in the contemporary literature whereas higher loads (.75% of 1RM) of loads can be accomplished (21).
(3,34,50,52,57,59,76,77), where superior would typically be employed for Thus, with exercises that are used to
enhancements in maximal power output strength development (Figure 8) (15,44). target strength development, the
and various markers of athletic perfor- So, if athletes were performing sets at warm-up sets actually become effective
mance are associated with mixed method 80–85% of 1RM for the development power training activities.
training interventions. For example, Cor- of strength, they would perform sub- A second power development strategy
mie et al. (14) reported that combined maximal back squats as part of their is to use a mixed methods approach in
training results in improvements in warm-up, which would effectively which various portions of the force-
power across a greater range of loaded serve to develop power generating velocity curve are targeted with the
activities and increased maximal strength capacity if performed “explosively” use of a variety of training exercises
Figure 9. Relative power outputs for various exercises. The relative power outputs noted will vary depending upon the load lifted,
the level of athletes, athletes level of strength, and the technique used in the lift. *Loads of between 75 and 85% of
1repetition maximum produce the highest power outputs; **loads of 0–30% produce the highest power outputs.
training activities are vertically inte- a variety of programmatic models that league football players. J Strength Cond
grated, compatible training factors are can be used as part of a comprehensive Res 15: 198–209, 2001.
paired allowing for the removal of periodized training plan. For further 6. Barker M, Wyatt TJ, Johnson RL,
interference effects (28,29). For exam- information on periodization, the reader Stone MH, O’Bryant HS, Poe C, and
ple, if attempting to maximize the Kent M. Performance factors, physiological
is directed to the works of Stone et al.
assessment, physical characteristic, and
development of explosive strength (72), Issurin (37,38), Bompa and Haff (9)
football playing ability. J Strength Cond
and power one could vertically inte- and Verkoshansky (80,82,83). Res 7: 224–233, 1993.
grate the training plan by including
7. Behm DG and Sale DG. Intended rather
activities to target maximal strength than actual movement velocity determines
training, plyometric training, and sprint G. Gregory velocity-specific training response. J Appl
training (29). Additionally, from Haff is a senior Physiol 74: 359–368, 1993.
a power development perspective, ver- strength scientist,
8. Bevan HR, Bunce PJ, Owen NJ,
tical integration can allow for various senior lecturer, Bennett MA, Cook CJ, Cunningham DJ,
parts of the force-velocity curve to be and masters of Newton RU, and Kilduff LP. Optimal
targeted through the selection of exer- strength and loading for the development of peak power
cises and loads that target different conditioning output in professional rugby players.
course coordina- J Strength Cond Res 24: 43–47, 2010.
parts of the curve (Figure 8).
tor at Edith 9. Bompa TO and Haff GG. Periodization:
The horizontal sequencing of training
Cowan Theory and Methodology of Training.
factors relates to the ordering of training Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics Publishers,
University.
foci (28,29,55,87). The sequential 2009.
training approach can be applied to the 10. Bondarchuk A. Periodization of sports
development of power by initiating the Sophia training. Legkaya Atletika 12: 8–9, 1986.
training process with activities that target Nimphius is 11. Bondarchuk AP. Constructing a training
increases in muscle cross-sectional area a strength scien- system. Track Tech 102: 254–269, 1988.
followed by a period of training that tist and senior 12. Chiu LZ and Schilling BK. A primer on
maximizes muscular strength. Once lecturer in the weightlifting: from sport to sports training.
muscular strength is developed, the train- masters of Strength and Cond 27: 42–48, 2005.
ing emphasis can then be shifted toward strength and 13. Cormie P, McBride JM, and
the maximization of power development conditioning at McCaulley GO. Validation of power
(55,87) (Figure 9). Conceptually this type Edith Cowan measurement techniques in dynamic lower
of training process is based upon the the- University. body resistance exercises. J Appl Biomech
ory of phase potentiation, where the 23: 103–118, 2007.
training adaptations stimulated by one 14. Cormie P, McCaulley GO, and
period of training serve as the foundation McBride JM. Power versus strength-power
REFERENCES
jump squat training: influence on the load-
for the subsequent phase (28,29). Support 1. Aagaard P, Simonsen EB, Andersen JL,
power relationship. Med Sci Sports Exerc
for this model of strength and power Magnusson P, and Dyhre-Poulsen P.
39: 996–1003, 2007.
development can be found in the work Increased rate of force development and
neural drive of human skeletal muscle 15. Cormie P, McCaulley GO, Triplett NT, and
of Harris et al. (34) where a sequenced
following resistance training. J Appl Physiol McBride JM. Optimal loading for maximal
training model in which combined train- 93: 1318–1326, 2002. power output during lower-body resistance
ing methods are employed resulted in exercises. Med Sci Sports Exerc 39: 340–
2. Aagaard P, Simonsen EB, Trolle M,
greater improvements in back squat 349, 2007.
Bangsbo J, and Klausen K. Effects of
(11.6%⇑) and front squat (37.7%⇑) different strength training regimes on 16. Cormie P, McGuigan MR, and Newton RU.
strength. Additionally, this model of moment and power generation during Adaptations in athletic performance following
training resulted in greater improvements dynamic knee extensions. Eur J Appl ballistic power vs strength training. Med Sci
in sprinting time across 9.14 m (2.3%⇓) Physiol 69: 382–386, 1994. Sports Exerc 42: 1582–1598, 2010.
and 30 m (1.4%⇓). Based upon the work 3. Adams K, O’Shea JP, O’Shea KL, and 17. Cormie P, McGuigan MR, and Newton RU.
of Minetti (55), Zamparo et al. (87), and Climstein M. The effect of six weeks of Influence of strength on magnitude and
Harris et al. (34) sequential periodization squat, plyometric and squat-plyometric mechanisms of adaptation to power
training on power production. J Appl Sport training. Med Sci Sports Exerc 42:
models are ideal for the optimal devel-
Sci Res 6: 36–41, 1992. 1566–1581, 2010.
opment of both strength and power.
4. Baker D. Comparison of upper-body 18. Cormie P, McGuigan MR, and Newton RU.
While a complete discussion of the var- strength and power between professional Developing maximal neuromuscular power:
ious periodization models needed for and college-aged rugby league players. Part 1-biological basis of maximal power
the development of power are out of J Strength Cond Res 15: 30–35, 2001. production. Sports Med 41: 17–38, 2011.
the scope of this brief review, it is 5. Baker D. A series of studies on the training 19. Cormie P, McGuigan MR, and Newton RU.
important to realize that there are of high-intensity muscle power in rugby Developing maximal neuromuscular power:
56. Moss BM, Refsnes PE, Abildgaard A, muscle after strength training in man. Eur lower-body functional power development:
Nicolaysen K, and Jensen J. Effects of J Appl Physiol 46: 221–228, 1981. weightlifting vs. vertical jump training
maximal effort strength training with 67. Sheppard JM and Young WB. Agility programs. J Strength Cond Res 19: 433–
different loads on dynamic strength, cross- literature review: classifications, training 437, 2005.
sectional area, load-power and load-
and testing. J Sports Sci 24: 919–932, 79. Verkhoshansky YU. How to set up
velocity relationships. Eur J Appl Physiol
2006. a training program. Sov Sports Rev 16:
75: 193–199, 1997.
68. Siegel JA, Gilders RM, Staron RS, and 123–136, 1981.
57. Newton RU, Hakkinen K, Hakkinen A,
Hagerman FC. Human muscle power 80. Verkhoshansky YU and Verkhoshansky N.
McCormick M, Volek J, and Kraemer WJ.
output during upper- and lower-body Special Strength Training Manual for
Mixed-methods resistance training
exercises. J Strength Cond Res 16: 173– Coaches. Rome, Italy: Verkhosansky STM,
increases power and strength of young and
178, 2002.
older men. Med Sci Sports Exerc 34: 2011.
1367–1375, 2002. 69. Siff MC. Supertraining. Denver, CO:
81. Verkhoshansky YV and Lazarev VV.
Supertrainig Institute, 2003.
58. Newton RU and Kraemer WJ. Developing Principles of planning speed and strength/
explosive muscular power: Implications for 70. Spassov A. Special considerations when speed endurance training in sports.
a mixed methods training strategy. programming for strength and power for Strength Cond J 11: 58–61, 1989.
Strength Cond J 16: 20–31, 1994. athletes: part I. Natl Strength Cond Assoc J
82. Verkoshansky Y. Main features of a modern
10: 58–61, 1988.
59. Newton RU, Kraemer WJ, and Hakkinen K. scientific sports training theory. New
Effects of ballistic training on preseason 71. Stone MH, Moir G, Glaister M, and Studies in Athletics 13: 9–20, 1998.
preparation of elite volleyball players. Med Sanders R. How much strength is necessary?
83. Verkoshansky Y. Organization of the
Sci Sports Exerc 31: 323–330, 1999. Phys Ther Sport 3: 88–96, 2002.
training process. New Studies in Athletics
60. Nimphius S, McGuigan MR, and 72. Stone MH, O’Bryant H, and Garhammer J. 13: 21–31, 1998.
Newton RU. Relationship between strength, A hypothetical model for strength training.
J Sports Med 21: 342–351, 1981. 84. Viitasalo JT. Rate of force development,
power, speed, and change of direction
muscle structure and fatigue. In:
performance of female softball players. 73. Stone MH, Stone ME, and Sands WA.
J Strength Cond Res 24: 885–895, 2010. Biomechanics VII-A: Proceedings of the
Principles and Practice of Resistance
7th International Congress of
61. Peterson MD, Alvar BA, and Rhea MR. The Training. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics
Biomechanics. Morecki A, Kazimirz F,
contribution of maximal force production to Publishers, 2007.
Kedzior K, and Wit A, eds. Baltimore, MD:
explosive movement among young 74. Sukop J and Nelson R. Effect of isometric University Park Press, 1981, pp. 136–141.
collegiate athletes. J Strength Cond Res training on the force-time characteristics of
20: 867–873, 2006. muscle contraction. In: Biomechanics IV. 85. Wilson GJ, Newton RU, Murphy AJ, and
Nelson RC and Morehouse CA, eds. Humphries BJ. The optimal training load for
62. Plisk SS and Gambetta V. Tactical
metabolic training: part 1. Strength and Baltimore, MD: University Park Press, the development of dynamic athletic
Cond 19: 44–53, 1997. 1974. pp. 440–447. performance. Med Sci Sports Exerc 25:
1279–1286, 1993.
63. Poprawski B. TRACK and FIELD: Aspects 75. Thorstensson A, Grimby G, and Karlsson J.
of strength, power and speed in shot put Force-velocity relations and fiber 86. Wisløff U, Castagna C, Helgerud J,
training. Strength Cond J 9: 39–43, 1987. composition in human knee extensor Jones R, and Hoff J. Strong correlation of
muscles. J Appl Physiol 40: 12–16, 1976. maximal squat strength with sprint
64. Ruben RM, Molinari MA, Bibbee CA,
performance and vertical jump height in
Childress MA, Harman MS, Reed KP, and 76. Toji H and Kaneko M. Effect of multiple-
load training on the force-velocity elite soccer players. Br J Sports Med 38:
Haff GG. The acute effects of an
ascending squat protocol on performance relationship. J Strength Cond Res 18: 285–288, 2004.
during horizontal plyometric jumps. 792–795, 2004. 87. Zamparo P, Minetti AE, and di Prampero PE.
J Strength Cond Res 24: 358–369, 2010. 77. Toji H, Suei K, and Kaneko M. Effects of Interplay among the changes of muscle
65. Schmidtbleicher D. Training for power combined training programs on force- strength, cross-sectional area and maximal
events. In: Strength and Power in Sport. velocity relation and power output in human explosive power: theory and facts. Eur J Appl
Komi PV, ed. Oxford, England: Blackwell, muscle. Jpn J Phys Fitness Sports Med 44: Physiol 88: 193–202, 2002.
1992. pp. 381–385. 439–445, 1995. 88. Zatsiorsky VM. Science and Practice of
66. Schmidtbleicher D and Haralambie G. 78. Tricoli V, Lamas L, Carnevale R, and Strength Training. Champaign, IL: Human
Changes in contractile properties of Ugrinowitsch C. Short-term effects on Kinetics, 1995.