AIR BASED HAZARDS

SOURCES OF AIR POLLUTANTS

I. Sources of Energy generation
This is where COx and SOx and water vapor are released in the atmosphere as large amount of
coal, oil, L.P/ Natural gas, gasoline and bio-fuels are used in combustion.

II. Transport
This is mobile and most leading source of CO. Combustion in engines is mainly fueled by
Gas, petrol, diesel, and kerosene. Jet engines of sub sonic long range air crafts are major
source of NOx, Traffic on road is considered as non-point or line source, addition to that
harbors and turbine engines of huge ships are also emits tons of greenhouse gases and toxic
particles in the air.

III. Industry
Most of the industries are directly or indirectly depend on fossil fuel, as they produce CO and
CO2, sulfur hexafluoride and particle matters. Mainly cement industry releases large amount
of particle matters in the environment. There is an array of hazardous volatile compounds that
are released from paints, electronics, dry cleansing, decreasing agents. Furthermore,
utilization of HFC, Oxides of Nitrogen, PFC and SF6 produces pollutants.

IV. Households
Carbon and soot emission during the cooking by the use of fossil fuels can be considered
here. Volatile toxicants such as Permethrine compounds of from insecticides could
contaminate in the air or even food and resulting in the intoxication.

V. Agricultural practices
Agriculture activities such as use of natural fertilizer release greenhouse gases. Pesticides
release persistent organic pollutants (POP). Enteric fermentation in cattle ranching produces
green house gases mainly methane. Toxic chemicals found in pesticide and weedicide also
reduces the quality of air inhaled.

VI. Land mining, earth moving activity and quarrying

Process of mining large mineral deposits in the earth accompanied with emission of dust and
other chemicals. Blasting, quarrying limestone in cement manufacturing produces dust
particles.

VII. Construction and repair works

Drilling, blasting, transportation, loading and unloading activities often causes dust
generation. In addition, there are several non point anthropogenic sources related to dust
generation such as welding, painting, auto mobile repairing, etc.

VIII. Burning of wastes and incinerators

This is more severe threat to the environment as it contaminates the atmosphere with
persistent organic pollutants (POP) such as dioxins, furans probably major sources are
plastics and electronic wastes. In addition, as in normal combustion carbon is emitted as
oxides and soot. Wastes are in a vast array such as plastic, electronic wastes, cement dust,
industrial chemicals, paper, glass, steel and various derivatives of soil minerals, biological
and medicinal wastes, drugs and other chemicals. Incinerators destroys the hazardous effect
of any gas or particle and the remaing dust emission could be as smalls as PM10-PM2.5 or
lesser, unless right particle filters are used it is also end up with adverse results.

IX. Natural sources

Compounds released from volcanic activities such as black smoke, ash, metals, SO x, COx
and release of methane form thawing of permafrost regions in the northern hemisphere,
wetlands, sanitary landfills. Forest fires and bush fires, dust storm, sea spray and conversion
of land use and release of isoprenes and terpenes by forest (precursors of low level ozone).

MAJOR AIR POLLUTANTS AND THEIR EFFECTS

Pollutants can be classified as primary or secondary. Primary pollutants are substances that
are directly emitted into the atmosphere from sources. The main primary pollutants known to
cause harm in high enough concentrations are the following:
 Carbon compounds, such as CO, CO2 , CH4 , and Volatile organic compounds
(VOCs)
 Nitrogen compounds, such as NO, N2O, and NH3
 Sulfur compounds, such as H2S and SO2
 Halogen compounds, such as chlorides, fluorides, and bromides
 Particulate Matter (PM or “aerosols”), either in solid or liquid form, which is usually
categorized into these groups based on the aerodynamic diameter of the particles
o Particles less than 100 microns, which are also called “inhalable”10 since they
can easily enter the nose and mouth.
o Particles less than 10 microns (PM10, often labeled “fine” in Europe).These
particles are also called “thoracic” since they can penetrate deep in the
respiratory system.
o Particles less than 4 microns. These particles are often called “respirable” 12
because they are small enough to pass completely through the respiratory
system and enter the bloodstream.
o Particles less than 2.5 microns (PM2.5, labeled “fine” in the US).
o Particles less than 0.1 microns (PM0.1, “ultrafine”).
 Secondary pollutants are not directly emitted from sources, but instead form in the
atmosphere from primary pollutants (also called “precursors”). The main secondary
pollutants known to cause harm in high enough concentrations are the following:
o NO2 and HNO3 formed from NO
o Ozone (O3 ) formed from photochemical reactions of nitrogen oxides and
VOCs
o Sulfuric acid droplets formed from SO2 , and nitric acid droplets formed from
NO2
o Sulfates and nitrates aerosols (e.g., ammonium (bi)sulfate and ammonium
nitrate) formed from reactions of sulfuric acid droplets and nitric acid droplets
with NH3 , respectively
o Organic aerosols formed from VOCs in gas-to-particle reactions

Primary pollutants
 These are gases and particles released to the atmosphere and remain in the same form
as it is from the source.
o Sulphur compounds
 Flue gas desulphurization plants (FGD), coal power plant (about 0.02-
2% of emission) , furnace oil (Sulphur content is generally 2.3 per cent
 by weight), paper mills, steel industry, refineries and sewage treatment
plants, petroleum refinery and vehicles engines, burning rubber,
crackers and match smoke. Naturally sources such as volcanoes,
marshes, bogs and swamps emit sulphur compounds. Found as SO2,
H2S, CS2, COS, Methyl mercaptan, Dimethyl sulphur, and Dimethyl
disulphide.
o Nitrogen compounds
 Major source is combustion such as get engines, NH 3 come from
fertilizers, livestock & poultry wastes, and vegetation, burning of
biomass and ocean spray, energy production, petroleum refinery, forest
fire, volcanic activity, bacterial breakdown of organic nitrates. It
promotes acidification. NO2 favours photochemical smoke and reduce
visibility. 77% of combustion gas of coal consist oxides of Nitrogen. In
high concentration causes pulmonary edema, airway injury, impaired
lung defenses, dissolved atmospheric NOx as in acid rain destroys fish
and plant life and N2O is a greenhouse gas causes global warming.
o Carbon monoxide
 Mainly from automobiles and during the combustion of fossil fuel, gas,
charcoal and wood, naturally from forest fires and volcanoes causes
difficulty in breathing as it compete with oxygen by forming
carboxyhemoglobin, Asphyxia, damage to heart and nervous system.
o Carbon dioxide
 CO2 is considered as an air pollutant as it defined by the clean air act.
And it is a greenhouse gas increasing levels of CO 2 causing global
warming. CO2 emission is available from all kind of combustion both
natural and manmade.
o Ground level Ozone
 Auto mobile emission, air craft cabins, Ozone generators
o Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon
 Which are released from cigarette smoke and stove smoke, can cause
lung cancer.
o Radon
 Released naturally from volcanic eruption, it is a radioactive material
ionizes biological molecules, causes cell disruption and causing lung
cancer.
o Asbestos
 Asbestos fiber dust released from building material, mines, mills and
insulations causes Mesothelioma, lung cancer, Asbestosis.
o Arsenic
 Found in copper smelters and cigarette smoke causing in lung cancer.
o Allergens
 House dust, Pollen, animal dander causes Asthma and rhinitis.
o Particle matter SPM, PM10, PM2.5
 Suspended particles are formed in every type of combustion and
originated from various sources; PM 2.5 can even reach the blood
circulation via the respiratory tract.
o HCl
 Released naturally from volcanic activities, causes eye irritation and
damages mucus membrane and affects respiratory system.
 o Dioxin
 Dioxin is a toxic gas produced from burning of electronic wastes and
plastic materials; it could cause cancer and affect the immune system
and leads to developmental reproductive disorders.
o Furans
 Furans are released during the burning of plastic products such as
nylon, containing various harmful compounds.
o Mercury
 Gold refinery is the major source of Mercury and it is a known
carcinogen
o Lead
 Lead particle found in petrol smoke and cause health issues such as
affects respiratory system, blood and kidneys also cause dyslexia and
hyperactivity in children, however currently it is completely banned
from fuel as use of lead free gasoline. Burning of lead containing
electronic wastes causes the adverse effect to the atmosphere.
o Compounds of Cadmium, Antimony, Arsenic, Zinc and Copper.
 These metallic elements often toxic and irritating smoke causes
adverse health effects, generally found in pesticides and fumes and gas
emission during the burning of plastic and electronic wastes.
o Volatile organic compounds (VOCs)
 VOCs are xylene, ethyl benzene and tri-methyl benzene compounds
commonly found in Air freshener, air cleaners (with ozone), cleaning
and disinfecting chemicals, cosmetics, gasoline, fuel oil, moth balls
and vehicle exhaust. There is an array of compounds listed in this
category such as Acetone, Benzene, Ethyl glycol, Formaldehyde,
Methylene chloride, Perchloro ethylene, Toluene, Xylene, 1, 3-
butadiene.
o Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs)
 Main sources are industrial products such as Poly chlorinated biphenyl
(PCB), pesticides such as DDT, industrial by products and burning of
waste products such as dioxins and furans.
Secondary pollutants
 Ground level Ozone
o It is the major component of Fog and it is produced by the photochemical
reaction between NOx and Volatile Organic Compounds. Causes breathing
difficulty and aggravates the lung diseases such as Emphysema and chronic
bronchitis.
 Peroxyacetylnitrate (PAN)
o PAN is formed due to photochemical reaction of NO x with hydrocarbons in the
sunlight, it is a component of photochemical smog, smog is a mixture of air
pollutants such as gases and particles react with sun light. PAN often causes
irritation to eye and together with Ozone it lowers the lung capacity and
increases breathing rate.
 CFC
o CFC formed by chemical reaction of fog in the atmosphere during volcanic
activity, causes depletion of Ozone layer. Used as propellant in sprays,
deodorants and repellants, this is now completely banned.
 Halons
 o Brominated organic compounds used as fire retardant which is also an Ozone
depleting compound.
 H2SO4
o Sulpuric acid formed due to the reaction of oxides of Sulphur with
atmospheric water vapour, causes acid rain and respiratory problems.
 Industrial Air Pollutants
o Major sources are Thermal Power Plants, Boilers, Thermic Fluid Heaters,
Incinerators, Cupola, blast furnace, Coke oven, Basic Oxygen Furnace,
Induction and air Furnace and Cement kilns.

Preliminary hazard analysis

PHA is that it is a tool to analyse hazardous situations and events that might cause harm, to
estimate probable hazards in occurrence for a given activity, facility, product or system based
on applying prior experience or knowledge of a hazard or failure to identify future hazards.

Preliminary hazard analysis (PHA) is a semi-quantitative analysis that is performed to:

1. Identify all potential hazards and accidental events that may lead to an accident
2. Rank the identified accidental events according to their severity
3. Identify required hazard controls and follow-up actions

Several variants of PHA are used, and sometimes under different names like

o Rapid Risk Ranking

o Hazard identification (HAZID)

What can PHA be used for?

1. As an initial risk study in an early stage of a project (e.g., of a new plant). Accidents
are mainly caused by release of energy. The PHA identifies where energy may be
released and which accidental events that may occur, and gives a rough estimate of
the severity of each accidental event. The PHA results are used to
i. compare main concepts, to
ii. focus on important risk issues, and as
iii. input to more detailed risk analyses.

2. As an initial step of a detailed risk analysis of a system concept or an existing system.

The purpose of the PHA is then to identify those accidental events that should be
subject to a further, and more detailed risk analysis.
3. As a complete risk analysis of a rather simple system.

Whether or not a PHA will be a sufficient analysis depends both on the complexity of the
system and the objectives of the analysis.

PHA scope
The PHA shall consider:
 Hazardous components
 Safety related interfaces between various system elements, including software
 Environmental constraints including operating environments
  Operating, test, maintenance, built-in-tests, diagnostics, and emergency procedures
 Facilities, real property installed equipment, support equipment, and training
 Safety related equipment, safeguards, and possible alternate approaches
 Malfunctions to the system, subsystems, or software

PHA MAIN STEPS

1. PHA prerequisites
2. Hazard identification
3. Consequence and frequency estimation
4. Risk ranking and follow-up actions

I. PHA prerequisites

1. Establish PHA team

2. Define and describe the system to be analyzed
(a) System boundaries (which parts should be included and which should not)
(b) System description; including layout drawings, process flow diagrams, block
diagrams, and so on
(c) Use and storage of energy and hazardous materials in the system
(d) Operational and environmental conditions to be considered
(e) Systems for detection and control of hazards and accidental events, emergency
systems, and mitigation actions
3. Collect risk information from previous and similar systems (e.g., from accident data
bases)

PHA team
A typical PHA team may consist of:
 A team leader (facilitator) with competence and experience in the method to be used
 A secretary who will report the results
 Team members (2-6 persons) who can provide necessary knowledge and experience
on the system being analyzed
How many team members who should participate will depend on the complexity of the
system and also of the objectives of the analysis. Some team members may participate only in
parts of the analysis.

System functions
As part of the system familiarization it is important to consider:

 What is the system dependent upon (inputs)?

 What activities are performed by the system (functions)?
 What services does the system provide (output)?

System breakdown
To be able to identify all hazards and events, it is often necessary to split the system into
manageable parts, for example, into three categories
 System parts (e.g., process units)
 Activities
 Exposed to risk (who, what are exposed?)
Selection of PHA worksheet
The results of the PHA are usually reported by using a PHA worksheet (or, a computer
program). A typical PHA worksheet is shown below. Some analyses may require other
columns, but these are the most common.

System: Operating mode: Analyst: Date:

II. Hazard identification

All hazards and possible accidental events must be identified. It is important to consider
all parts of the system, operational modes, maintenance operations, safety systems, and so
on. All findings shall be recorded. No hazards are too insignificant to be recorded.

Hazard checklist
To get a complete survey of all possible hazards it may be beneficial to use a hazard
checklist.
Common sources of hazards are:
 Sources and propagation paths of stored energy in electrical, chemical, or mechanical
form
 Mechanical moving parts
 Material or system incompatibilities
 Nuclear radiation
 Electromagnetic radiation (including infra-red, ultra-violet, laser, radar, and radio
frequencies)
 Collisions and subsequent problems of survival and escape
 Fire and explosion
 Toxic and corrosive liquids and gases escaping from containers or being generated as
a result of other incidents
 Deterioration in long-term storage
 Noise including sub-sonic and supersonic vibrations
 Biological hazards, including bacterial growth in such places as fuel tanks
 Human error in operating, handling, or moving near equipment of the system
 Software error that can cause accidents

How to identify hazards?

To identify hazards, you can:
 Examine similar existing systems
 Review previous hazard analyses for similar systems
  Review hazard checklists and standards
 Consider energy flow through the system
 Consider inherently hazardous materials
 Consider interactions between system components
 Review operation specifications, and consider all environmental factors
 Use brainstorming in teams
 Consider human/machine interface
 Consider usage mode changes
 Try small scale testing, and theoretical analysis
 Think through a worst case what-if analysis

Additional data sources

To aid prediction of what can happen in the future it is possible to see what actually has
happened in the past:
 Accident reports/databases (MARS, Facts, Mhidas, Woad, etc.)
 Accident statistics
 Near miss/ dangerous occurrence reports
 Reports from authorities or governmental bodies
 Expert judgement

III. Frequency and consequence estimation

 The risk related to an accidental event is a function of the frequency of the event and
the severity of its potential consequences.
 To determine the risk, we have to estimate the frequency and the severity of each
accidental event.

Which consequences should be considered?

 An accidental event may lead to wide range of consequences, ranging from negligible
to catastrophic. A fire may, for example, be extinguished very fast and give minor
consequences, or lead to a disaster.
 In some applications the severity of an average consequence of an accidental event is
assessed.
 In other applications we consider several possible consequences, including the worst
foreseeable consequence of the accidental event

Severity classes
The severity of an event may be classified into rather broad classes. An example of such a
classification is:
Frequency estimation

 When estimating the frequency of an event, we have to bear in mind which

consequences we consider.
 In some applications we estimate the frequency of each accidental event. To be used
in risk ranking, this frequency has to be related to the severity of an average
consequence of each particular accidental event.
 In other applications we consider specific (e.g., worst case) consequences of an
accidental event. We must then estimate the frequency that the accidental event
produces a specific consequence. This may involve a combined assessment, for
example, the frequency of the accidental event, the probability that personnel are
present, the probability that the personnel are not able to escape, and so on.
 This means that for each accidental event, we may want to present several
consequences with associated frequencies. Consider an accidental event where an
operator falls from a work platform of low height. In most cases the consequence of
such a fall will be a minor injury (low severity and rather high frequency). In a very
seldom case, the fall may result in a fatality (high severity and very low frequency).
Both consequences should be recorded in the PHA worksheet.
 In some applications we may want to present both the frequency of the accidental
event and frequencies of various consequences. These may be included in separate
columns in a (revised) PHA worksheet.

Frequency classes
The frequency of events may be classified into rather broad classes. An example of such a
classification is:

Very unlikely Once per 1000 years or more seldom

Remote Once per 100 years
Occasional Once per 10 years
Probable Once per year
Frequent Once per month or more often

IV. Risk ranking and follow-up actions

The risk is established as a combination of a given event/consequence and a severity of the
same event/consequence. This will enable a ranking of the events/consequences in a risk
matrix as illustrated below:
Risk levels and actions
Each entry in the PHA worksheet may be given a specific risk level

Reviewing and revising a PHA

Review/update a PHA whenever:
 The system matures and more is learned about it
 The system equipment is modified
 Maintenance or operating procedures change
 A mishap or near-miss occurs
 Environmental conditions change
 Operating parameters or stress change

Limitations of Preliminary Hazard Analysis

Because the preliminary hazard analysis technique is typically conducted early in the process,
before other analysis techniques are practical, this methodology has two primary limitations:

Generally requires additional follow-up analyses. Because the PrHA is conducted early in
the process and uses preliminary design information, additional analyses are generally
required to more fully understand and evaluate hazards and potential accidents identified by
the PrHA team.

Quality of the results is highly dependent on the knowledge of the team. At the time of a
PrHA, there are few or no fully developed system specifications and little or no detailed
design information. Therefore, the risk assessment relies heavily on the knowledge of subject
matter experts. If these experts do not participate in the risk assessment, or if the system is a
new technology having little or no early operational history, the results of the PrHA will
reflect the uncertainty of the team in many of its assessments and assumptions.

Potential Areas of Use(s)

PHA might be useful when analyzing existing systems or prioritizing hazards where
circumstances prevent a more extensive technique from being used. It can be used for
product, process and facility design as well as to evaluate the types of hazards for the general
product type, then the product class, and finally the specific product. PHA is most commonly
used early in the development of a project when there is little information on design details or
operating procedures; thus, it will often be a precursor to further studies. Typically, hazards
identified in the PHA are further assessed with other risk management tools such as those in
this section.

Basic Principles of Fire

Fire is a rapid chemical process in which oxygen combines with another substance in the
presence of a source of heat energy. The reaction of these elements is called combustion, and
during the reaction, heat, light and flames are given off.
The Fire Triangle
Three components have to be present in sufficient quantities. These form a structure known
as the fire triangle. If one of these elements is removed, the fire will go out.

Heat

Heat acts as the source of ignition and anything that gives off heat can start a fire.
It is important to be aware that the source of heat can not only be equipment and activities
which, by design, involve the production of heat, but may also include a variety of other
circumstances with which heat may not be expected at all. Range of equipment which
generate heat when in proper use, e.g. welding torches, blow-lamps, soldering irons, space
heaters, hot plates, ovens, electric fires, light bulbs and electric irons.
Fuel
The fuel for a fire does not have to be a recognized fuel in the sense of petrol or gas. It may
be any combustible material. Carbon or hydrocarbon based materials will burn readily at the
sort of temperatures often generated in a workplace or domestic environment. They include
solids such as paper and wood, and gases such as petrol vapour, natural (town) gas or propane
(bottled gas). However, other materials may also combust at relatively low temperatures.
The type of fuel is also important because different substances behave in different ways when
they burn, e.g. the amount of flames or smoke they give off may depend upon the
circumstances (temperature and air conditions) and because the means of extinguishing the
fire may vary.
Oxygen
The oxygen essential for combustion is usually supplied from the surrounding air. However,
the naturally present oxygen may be enhanced by the presence of other sources of oxygen
such as compressed air, the pure oxygen in gas cylinders used for welding, or by the
combustion of peroxides, nitrates, and similar chemicals. (These chemicals give off oxygen
as they burn, further aiding their own combustion. They are sometimes known as oxidising
agents.)

Classification of Fires
Fires are classified into five categories according to the fuel type.
Class A
These are fires involving solid materials, normally of an organic nature, such as paper, wood,
coal and natural fibres. These fires usually produce burning embers.
Class B
These are fires involving flammable liquids or liquefied solids, such as petrol, oil, grease, fats
and paint.

Class C
These are fires involving gases or liquefied gases, such as methane, propane, and mains gas.

Class D
These are fires where the fuel is a metal such as aluminium, sodium, potassium or
magnesium.

Class F
These are fires fuelled by cooking fats, as in the case of deep fat frying.

Methods of Heat Transmission and Fire Spread

Convection
Convection is the process whereby heat moves through a gas or liquid. When a gas or liquid,
such as air or water, is heated it expands and becomes less dense. As a result it rises and
cooler air or water is drawn in to replace it, creating a current.

Convection currents created in the air by fire are a major means of fire spread. They may
carry burning materials through the air and into contact with other combustible materials and
also, depending upon the intensity of the fire and the heat generated, create strong localised
winds which may fan the flames and cause flare ups.

Conduction
Convection Currents
Heat may be transmitted through certain materials, known as conductors, without those
materials themselves actually burning. This is particularly the case with metals. The heat
generated by a fire (or any other process producing heat) may therefore be transferred to a
separate location where it can act as a source of ignition.
This has important implications for many steel frame buildings which feature widespread use
of metal within the structure of the building (e.g. steel girders) and the services which run
through it, such as pipes and various types of ducting.
Radiation
Radiation is the general term for the process by which energy is lost from a source without
direct contact. Heat radiation refers to the process whereby the heat given off by hot objects
passes through air and through certain types of transparent material such as glass. This
radiant heat can in itself be sufficient to act as a source of ignition.
For example, radiators are an obvious source of heat and clothes which are left to dry too
close to them may catch fire. Similarly, light bulbs give out heat (and in the case of certain
types of spot lights, a large amount of heat) and any fabrics or flammable materials which are
too close may start to burn.
The intensity of radiant heat diminishes with the distance from its source. However,
depending on the temperature of the source, heat transfer may take place over quite large
distances. For example, a fire burning on one side of a street may be sufficient to cause
materials on the other side of the street to ignite.
Direct Burning
This occurs where heat is transferred directly by contact from one substance to another. If a
piece of paper catches alight then the heat (in the form of flames) can spread to the next piece
of paper and then to the next until a whole area is on fire. Similarly, oil based paint on walls
can spread fire, as can a pool or trail of flammable liquid.
Note that direct burning can take place across a gap where the wind conditions allow for
flames to be fanned and thereby come into contact with other separate combustible materials.
This fanning may be the result of simply opening a window or door, allowing more air into
an enclosed space. Note, too, that localised winds are created by convection.

Common Causes and Consequences of Fires in Workplaces

Workplace fires start when the heat generated by a deliberate work process, or by accident,
acts as a source of ignition on a combustible material. All such fires are preventable by
appropriate safety precautions, as we discuss elsewhere. There is also an increasing incidence
of arson which may account for a large proportion of all fires.
Once a fire has started it can spread quickly by means of all four methods of heat transfer.
The most usual methods are through direct burning of the materials contained within the
building and by convection. Hot gases and smoke can rise up staircases, lift shafts, vertical
ducts and floor openings, and can be spread by convection currents under ceilings and other
horizontal surfaces, through roof spaces, gaps between floors and false ceilings.
Flying brands (particles of burning material) which are carried by the currents may ignite
further combustible materials. As more materials are ignited and the heat intensifies, the
volume of these gases and smoke grows and the speed of the convection currents increases,
aiding the spread of the fire. Heat may also be spread by conduction through structural
support materials (particularly steel girders), pipes and air conditioning ducts, and by both
radiation and conduction through doors and other apparent barriers, allowing fire to move
from one room to another.
Losses due to fire have an enormous cost (both financial and human) to industry and the
community and yet most fires are preventable. Disruption to business in the form of loss of
production, loss of plant and, sometimes, injury and loss of life can often be crippling. Even a
minor fire involves disruption and a reduction in output which benefits no one (except the
insurance company requesting higher premiums). Over 70% of businesses which have
suffered a major fire either do not re-open or fail within three years of the loss.

Fire Risk Assessment

Prevention and control of fire spread is a high priority issue. This is nearly always reflected in
legislation designed to cope specifically with this threat. Different countries tackle this in
different ways (for example, through fire department inspectors and more recently the use of
specific risk assessment for fire). Primary responsibility for workplace fire safety is placed on
employers and those in control of workplaces. They must provide the measures necessary to
prevent or control the risks from fire and, in particular, must ensure the following points:
• That the workplace is equipped with appropriate fire-fighting equipment, fire
detectors and alarms and that any non-automatic fire-fighting equipment is easily accessible,
simple to use and indicated by signs.
• That appropriate measures are taken for fire-fighting, the nomination and training of
workers to implement those measures, and the arranging of contacts with external emergency
services.
• That emergency routes are kept clear and comply with any rules or regulations
relating to routes, doors and signs.
• That there is a suitable system of maintenance for fire precautions in relation to
workplace procedures in general and to specific equipment and devices, which must be kept
in good working order and repair.
These requirements may be enforced by local fire authority inspectors. The following basic
points must be considered to fully assess the adequacy of any site fire precautions. Here we
take a risk assessment based approach. These will be supplemented with any fire specific
legislation in your own country.
Site Plan
A site plan is useful for identifying all principal sources of ignition; they should be clearly
marked on the plan. The plan should show all electrical appliances, heating plant, site of
hazardous processes, location of the electric mains switches and the main gas control valves.
It should also show waste disposal areas and the location of fire extinguishers.
In premises where much of the work is carried out within a single area, it may be adequate to
carry out the assessment of a building as a single unit. However, in most cases it will be
necessary to subdivide the building into discrete areas or rooms. It is particularly important
not to lose sight of the effects that adjacent work or storage areas, or some normally
inaccessible areas, may have on the rest of the building, e.g. roof voids, boiler rooms or fuel
storage.
Identification of Hazards and Assessment of the Level of Risk Each Presents
In all cases the assessment should consider how the risk may be minimised. This should take
the form of a review of:
• General working policies, e.g. no smoking.
• Specific working practices, e.g. the removal of waste on a more frequent basis,
reducing the use of flammable substances where alternatives are available, or using fixed
electrical installations (as opposed to portable appliances).
• The physical condition of the premises, e.g. the sealing of any gaps around the pipe
work running between rooms.
Identification of the Fire Control and Evacuation Measures
Although the main effort must be to reduce the likelihood of fire arising, consideration must
be given to how a fire should be dealt with if the precautions are ineffective. This should
cover the following points:
• Warning systems – alarms and detectors.
• Fire-fighting equipment.
• Evacuation procedures and escape routes, including signs and emergency lighting.
• Testing, maintenance and inspection procedures, including fire drills.