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Electrical & Electronics
Electrical & Electronics
Electronics is a subset of electrical where you influence and control the behaviour
of electrons in a circuit by another current, without mechanical parts (switches,
relays ) or electro magnetism (coils, oscillators)
Electric things are those deal with higher voltages , transformers , generators etc.
where as electronic are those which uses low voltages like IC.s of mag (0-15 V)
X1 Y1
Inputs
X2
Electronics Y2
Outputs
X3 Y3
Introduction
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Few Definitions
Measurand: The physical quantity or the characteristic conditions which is the object of
measurement in an instrumentation system is termed as measurand or measurement
variable or process variable.
e.g. Fundamental Quantity: length, mass, time et.
Derived Quantity : Speed, Velocity, Pressure etc.
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Significance of Measurement
“When you can measure, what you are speaking and express it
in numbers, you know something about and can express it in
numbers, you know something about it, when you cannot
express in it numbers in knowledge is of meagre and
unsatisfactory kind” – Lord Kelvin
Measured Value: Any value or any reading calculated from measurement system
or measuring instrument.
True value: Any value calculated from rated value known as True value of Actual
Value.
e.g. Motor Actual Speed
True Value Measured Value
Measuring Instrument
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Methods of Measurement
Method of Measurement
Comparison methods
“Comparison method” include the comparison of the quantity under
measurement with a pre-defined standard quantity which gives
measurement. Example: potentiometer
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Sensor VS transducer
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Functional Elements of an Instruments
Qty. to be
measured Primary Variable Variable Data Data
sensing conversion manipulation transmission presentation
element element element element element
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Take an example:
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Classification of Instruments
Measurement involve the use of instruments as a physical means of
determining quantities or variables.
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Active/Passive Instruments
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Absolute or Primary/Secondary
Instruments
Absolute Instruments
It gives the magnitude of quantity under measurement in
terms of physical constants of the instrument e.g. Tangent
Galvanometer
In this type of instruments no calibration
or comparison with other instruments is necessary.
They are generally not used in laboratories and
are seldom used in practice by electricians and engineers.
Secondary Instruments
These instruments are so constructed that the quantity being measured can only be
determined by the output indicated by the instrument.
These instruments are calibrated by comparison with an absolute instrument or another
secondary instrument, which has already been calibrated against an absolute instrument.
e.g. Ammeter, Voltmeter etc.
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Classification of Secondary
Instruments
(a) Classification based on the various effects of electric current (or voltage) upon which
their operation depend.
• Magnetic effect: Used in ammeters, voltmeters,
watt-meters, integrating meters etc.
• Heating/thermal effect: Used in ammeters and voltmeters.
• Electromagnetic field of attraction/repulsion
• Electrostatic effect: Used in voltmeters.
• Electromagnetic induction effect: Used in ac ammeters,
voltmeters, watt meters and integrating meters.
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Classification of Secondary
Instruments
Integrating instruments: These instruments record the consumption of the total quantity of
electricity, energy etc., during a particular period of time. : Ampere-hour meter: kilowatt thour
(kWh) meter, kilovolt-ampere-hour (kVARh) meter.
(c) Classification based on the Kind of Current that can be Measurand.
• Direct current (dc) instruments
• Alternating current (ac) instruments
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Analog /Digital Instruments
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Analog Instruments
Analog Instruments
Working Principle
Quantity to be measured Magnetic field effect Representation
Current-Ammeter Electrostatic field effect
Voltage-Voltmeter Electromagnetic Field of
Power-Wattmeter attraction/repulsion
P=V x I Induction effect
Energy –Energy Meter Heating effect
𝑡
E=
0
𝑃𝑑𝑡
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Deflection /Null o/p Instruments
Deflection Null
Only one source of input reqd. Require two input- measurand
and balance input
Output reading is based on the deflection Must have feedback operation that
from the initial condition of the instrument compares the measurand with std. value
• The measurand value of the qty. depends Most accurate and sensitive
on the calibration of the instrument
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Essential Requirements of Indicating
Instruments
1. Deflecting torque (Td) : Deflecting torque causes the moving system and
pointer of the instrument to move from its zero position. Production of
deflecting torque depends upon the type of indicating instrument and its
principle of operation
2. Controlling torque (Tc) : Controlling torque limits the movement of pointer
and ensures that the magnitude of deflection is unique and is always same for
the given value of electrical quantity to be measured.
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Spring Control Method
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Gravity Control Method
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Essential Requirements of Indicating
Instruments
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Essential Requirements of Indicating
Instruments
3. Damping Torque: Damping torque minimizes the oscillations of the pointer about the final
steady state deflection and makes it steady.. In the absence of this torque, pointer continues
oscillating to its final position after reaching to its final position. Depending on the
magnitude of damping, it can be classified as underdamped, over damped and critically
damped
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