The Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) Reference Model

The OSI (Open Systems Interconnect) Reference Model (ISO 7498) defines a
seven-layer model of data communication with physical transport at the lower
layer and application protocols at the upper layers. This model, shown in Figure
1.2, is widely accepted as a basis for the understanding of how a network
protocol stack should operate and as a reference tool for comparing network
stack implementation.

Each layer provides a set of functions to the layer above and, in turn, relies on
the functions provided by the layer below. Although messages can only pass
vertically through the stack from layer to layer, from a logical point of view, each
layer communicates directly with its peer layer on other nodes. The seven layers
are:
Application Network applications such as terminal emulation and file transfer
Presentation Formatting of data and encryption
Session Establishment and maintenance of sessions
Transport Provision of reliable and unreliable end-to-end delivery
Network Packet delivery, including routing
Data Link Framing of units of information and error checking
Physical Transmission of bits on the physical hardware

Internet Protocol (IP)

IP is the protocol that hides the underlying physical network by creating a virtual
network view. It is an unreliable, best-effort, and connectionless packet delivery protocol. Note
that best-effort means that the packets sent by IP may be lost,
arrive out of order, or even be duplicated. IP assumes higher layer protocols will
address these anomalies. One of the reasons for using a connectionless network
protocol was to minimize the dependency on specific computing centers that
used hierarchical connection-oriented networks
IP addressing

IP addresses are represented by a 32-bit unsigned binary value. It is usually

expressed in a dotted decimal format. For example, 9.167.5.8 is a valid IP
address

Word Wide Web

The World Wide Web is a global hypertext system that was initially developed in
1989 by Tim Berners Lee at the European Laboratory for Particle Physics, CERN
in Switzerland to facilitate an easy way of sharing and editing research
documents among a geographically dispersed group of scientists.
In 1993, the Web started to grow rapidly, which was mainly due to the National
Center for Supercomputing Applications (NCSA) developing a Web browser
program called Mosaic, an X Windows-based application. This application
provided the first graphical user interface to the Web and made browsing more
convenient. Today, there is Web browsers and servers available for nearly all
platforms. The rapid growth in popularity of the Web is due to the flexible way
people can navigate through worldwide resources in the Internet and retrieve
them.
Web browsers: Generally, a browser is referred to as an application that
provides access to a Web server. Depending on the implementation, browser
capabilities and hence structures may vary. A Web browser, at a minimum,
consists of an Hypertext Markup Language (HTML) interpreter and HTTP client
which is used to retrieve HTML Web pages. Besides this basic requirement,
many browsers also support FTP, NNTP, e-mail (POP and SMTP clients),
among other features, with an easy-to-manage graphical interface.

Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP)

The hypertext transfer protocol is a protocol designed to allow the transfer of
Hypertext Markup Language (HTML) documents. HTML is a tag language used
to create hypertext documents. Hypertext documents include links to other
documents that contain additional information about the highlighted term or
subject. Such documents may contain other elements apart from text, such as
graphic images, audio and video clips, Java applets, and even virtual reality
worlds.
HTTP is based on request-response activity. A client, running an application
called a browser, establishes a connection with a server and sends a request to
the server in the form of a request method. The server responds with a status
line, including the message's protocol version and a success or error code,
followed by a message containing server information, entity information and
possible body content.
An HTTP transaction is divided into four steps:
1. The browser opens a connection.
2. The browser sends a request to the server.
3. The server sends a response to the browser.
4 The connection is closed.

On the Internet, HTTP communication generally takes place over TCP

connections. The default port is TCP 80, but other ports can be used. This does
not preclude HTTP from being implemented on top of any other protocol on the
Internet, or on other networks. HTTP only presumes a reliable transport; any
protocol that provides such guarantees can be used.
TYPES OF MEMORY

4.1 Primary Memory or Main Memory

It may be called as MAIN MEMORY or Internal Memory. It built with in the
computer that stores the unprocessed and processed data as well as the
program instructions. It is Immediate Access Memory. It is of a limited in
capacity and temporary in nature. The information resides in the secondary
memory, are needed by CPU for current execution is transferred from the
Secondary Memory to the Main Memory.
The standard base memory is 640 K or KB. It may enhance up to 1MB,
2MB, 8MB, 16MB, 32MB, 64MB, 128 MB and 256 MB depending on need of
the user.
4.1.1 Functions of Primary Memory
1. To hold the Operating System Instructions when Boot the Computer
[Turned on the System]
2. It holds the copy of the programming instructions and data are input
from the Keyboard through user temporarily, that are currently being
executed
3. It store the result temporarily, which is generated after processing until it
is transferred to corresponding output device.
4.1.2 Types of Main/Primary Memory:
1. RAM – Random Access Memory
2. ROM – Read Only Memory
 PROM – Programmable Read Only Memory
 EPROM – Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory
 EEPROM – Electronic Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory
Ram :
RAM is identical to core memory in function and is a read / write memory.
Data can be stored in RAM by addressing one RAM cell. The data and
instructions fed in via the input device are stored in the RAM so it may called

as users memory. RAM instructions are temporary in nature and are present
only for the time that the program is being used. RAM instructions can be
updated.
There are Two vital types of RAM
1. Static RAM [SRAM] : It retains stored information till computer is
under Working
2. Dynamic RAM [DRAM]: It loses its stored information in a very short
span of time even though computer is under working.
Rom :
It is permanent memory storage, as the name suggests, is that part of the
memory which is only ‘Read’ by the computer. This memory is non–volatile
has fixed instructions on it, i.e., instructions are related to the operating
system of computer. These instructions are written by machine
manufacturers and these instructions cannot be updated by the user.
When you turn on the system, the ROM instructions are instantly activated
to get activated of all Input /Output Devices.
RAM
1. RAM instructions are
temporary in nature
2. Instructions can be Read and
Write from the memory
3. Instructions can be updated
(add, modify, delete) by user.
4 RAM is Volatile memory
ROM
1. ROM instructions are
permanent in nature
2. Instructions can be Only Read
from the memory
3. Instructions can not be updated
by user.
4. ROM is Nonvolatile memory

PROM :
Programmable Read Only Memory : this memory is non-volatile type.
Instructions can be written once by the programmer and then can be
subsequently read. PROM chips are custom made for the user by the

EPROM :
Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory: This memory is non-volatile
type. In this type of memory, instructions can be rewritten by the
programmer using special techniques. These chips were developed as an
improvement over PROM chips. With the help of special device that uses
ultraviolet light, the data / instructions on an EPROM chip can be erased,
and new data / instructions can be recorded in its place. To change the
instructions on an EPROM you have to remove the chip from machine and
then put back when changes have been made.
EEPROM :
Electronic Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory : It is an advance
addition to the ROM family of chips, to avoid the inconvenience of changing
the instructions by taking the chip outside the machine. Instead , changes
can be made electrically under software control. These chips are being used
in Point-of-Sale (POS) terminals to record price related data for products.
So, the prices recorded on them can be easily updated as needed. The
main disadvantages of EEPROM chips are more costly than regular ROM
chips.
4.2 Secondary Memory
We saw how the primary memory being within the computer has limited
storage capacity and its temporary in nature, to over come these limitations,
it is necessary to retain the data and program permanently for the future
use, which could be huge storage capacity and present outside the CPU,
these are may called as “Backing Storage Devices” or “Secondary Memory”
or “External Storage Devices”. Secondary memory storage capacity is huge
and permanent in nature, instructions can be updated any time.
Example: Magnetic media – [Magnetic Disk/Tape/Drum]
Magnetice Tape

 Magnetic Disk [ Floppy Disk, Hard Disk etc]

 Magnetic Drum.
 MICR [Magnetic Ink Character Reader]
 CD-ROMS