Kathmandu University: Department of Civil & Geomatics Engineering

Kathmandu University
Department of Civil & Geomatics Engineering

Course No.: CIEG 209 Subject: Engineering Geology
Name: Assignment/Tutorial No.: 1
Roll No.: Date of Submission:
1. Why do Civil Engineers require Geology? Explain with suitable examples.

Ans: Geology is the study of earth, the materials of which it is made, the structure of
those materials and the effects of the natural forces acting upon them and is important to
civil engineering because all work performed by civil engineers involves earth and its
features. Fundamental understanding of geology is so important that it is a requirement in
university-level civil engineering programs. For a civil engineering project to be
successful, the engineers must understand the land upon which the project rests.
Geologists study the land to determine whether it is stable enough to support the
proposed project. They also study water patterns to determine if a particular site is prone
to flooding. Some civil engineers use geologists to examine rocks for important metals,
oil, natural gas and ground water. The full knowledge of geology increases the strength,
stability, and durability of civil engineering projects.
A Civil Engineer should have a good knowledge about geology as it
makes him/her to understand the nature of geological information that is absolutely
essential for the safe design and construction of a civil engineering projects. For
construction of any structure first of all the mapping of the area is done. What makes a
structure strong? A structure is strong when its foundation is strong and can hold a good
grip with the soil. Here, the knowledge of geology will eventually help a civil engineer
about the type of soil where the construction is to be done. For example, the soil in
Kathmandu valley, for construction of American embassy heavy weight materials were
subjected to the ground from a certain height to check the strength of the soil that
eventually lead to safe designing of the embassy. But, in the terai region the soil is strong
enough to hold the structure firmly comparatively better than in hilly area.
Hence, geological information has a great importance in the life of civil engineer. It not
only helps a civil engineer to utilize the locally available materials at optimum level.
Name: Assignment/Tutorial No.:
2. Discuss the importance of studying crystallography and its system forms and habitats in
civil engineering.
Crystals are the homogenous substance having a fixed geometrical shape and having a
symmetrical arrangement of the atoms inside it, and crystallography is the science of determining
the arrangement of atoms of the crystalline structure. It involves the analysis of crystal which
involves determination of the properties such as optical, physical, chemical properties of the
atomic structures of the crystal.
Ongoing towards the importance of crystallography in civil
engineering, it is very important to know about the crystal structure in order to understand the
characteristics of the different kind of mineral, rock, with the crystal structure. It helps to show
the use of substances such as rock in the necessary field of civil engineering. Civil engineers
after knowing about the crystallography can design the project according to the availability of
raw materials i.e. rocks mainly related with the optical properties.
3. what is the importance of rock forming in civil engineering with two specific examples.
Minerals are the natural, inorganic, homogenous substance with definite chemical composition
and regular atomic structure. In geology the process of rock forming minerals is very important
in order to know its property such as physical, chemical, cleavage etc. these properties help us to
know what kind of rocks can be for different purpose. Quartz, mica, feldspar, pyroxene and
amphibole are the common rock forming minerals. The points below elaborate its importance.
i. Civil engineers must know about the compositions of rock forming minerals in order
to know its use in different types of project. For example, mica can be used as a good
insulator in home and concrete blocks.
ii. Minerals helps us to know about the strength, durability, appearance, of the types of
rock being used in the projects.
iii. The minerals which are important for economic point of view in the civil engineering
works can be known so that while performing the project they can eradicate the use of
those minerals.
iv. By knowing the rock forming minerals civil engineering can find the proper place of
use for abundant minerals in proper place.
4. Discuss the significance of internal structure of the earth.

A knowledge of earth's interior is essential for understanding plate
tectonics. A good analogy for teaching about earth's interior is a
piece of fruit with a large pit such as a peach or a plum. Most
students are familiar with these fruits and have seen them cut in
half. In addition, the sizes of the features are very similar.
If we cut a piece of fruit in half, we will see that it is composed of
three parts: 1) a very thin skin, 2) a seed of significant size located
in the center, and 3) most of the mass of the fruit being contained
within the flesh. Cutting the earth, we would see: 1) a very thin crust on the outside, 2) a core of
significant size in the center, and 3) most of the mass of the Earth contained in the mantle.
A. Earth’s crust:
There are two different types of crust:
thin oceanic crust that underlies the ocean
basins, and thicker continental crust that
underlies the continents. These two different
types of crust are made up of different types
of rock. The thin oceanic crust is composed
of primarily of basalt, and the thicker
continental crust is composed primarily of
granite. The low density of the thick continental crust allows it to "float" in high relief on the
much higher density mantle below.
B. Mantle:
Earth's mantle is thought to be
composed mainly of olivine-rich rock. It
has different temperatures at different
depths. The temperature is lowest
immediately beneath the crust and
increases with depth. The highest
temperatures occur where the mantle
material is in contact with the heat-
producing core. This steady increase of
temperature with depth is known as the
geothermal gradient. The geothermal
gradient is responsible for different rock
behaviors, and the different rock behaviors are used to divide the mantle into two
different zones. Rocks in the upper mantle are cool and brittle, while rocks in the lower
mantle are hot and soft (but not molten). Rocks in the upper mantle are brittle enough to
break under stress and produce earthquakes. However, rocks in the lower mantle are soft
and flow when subjected to forces instead of breaking.
C. Core:
Earth's Core is thought to be composed
mainly of an iron and nickel alloy. This
composition is assumed based upon
calculations of its density and upon the
fact that many meteorites (which are
thought to be portions of the interior of a
planetary body) are iron-nickel alloys.
The core is earth's source of internal heat
because it contains radioactive materials
which release heat as they break down
into more stable substances.
The core is divided into two different
zones. The outer core is a liquid because the temperatures there are adequate to melt the
iron-nickel alloy. However, the inner core is a solid even though its temperature is higher
than the outer core. Here, tremendous pressure, produced by the weight of the overlying
rocks, is strong enough to crowd the atoms tightly together and prevents the liquid state.
5. Based on velocity and density distribution in the different layers of earths structure,
give suitable explanations for the formation of layers.
As the study suggests the formation of the earth was commenced by the cooling and
solidification of the molten material at very high temperature and pressure. As the
geological time period passed and the primitive liquid earth further cooled down it started
to settle according to the mass of it.
The highly dense 13.1 gmcm-3 molten materials containing iron and nickel were settled at
the core of the earth being heavy. The temperature increased to extreme 5000 o C due to
all the loads of above lying layers. As we know density and liquid velocity are inversely
related and since core had highly dense molten materials, the p-wave velocity was
decreased to about 8.06 kms-1 which can also be the reason, core settled down the inner
most of the earth. Due to very high density and pressure the inner core stayed in solid
formation and just above the inner core remained the lesser dense outer core which
remained in liquid form. It remained liquid even being in high temperature and pressure
because, the pressure here was not enough to condense the materials to solid state, only to
molten form and the temperature was very high which melted the materials.
As the layers steeled down the lighter molten materials raised just above the core
remained as mantle. The mantle is not much different than core, but only the contents,
density and p-wave velocity vary. The mantle constituents of silicate and iron which are
lighter to nickel rocks. The temperature also reduced around 2200 oC as the pressure due
to above lying loads were gradually decreasing. The materials in this layer had more
kinetic and vibrational energy as they were light, under less pressure than core but at high
temperature resulting in very high seismic wave velocity (p-wave) i.e. about 13.71 kms-1.
Now very light materials floated the large spherical ocean of molten materials. The
outermost layer came in contact with the atmosphere and along various climatic actions
resulted in the formation of core which settled at an average density of 2.7 gmcm -3. The
continuous moving magma caused large seismic activities on the crust creating folds,
faults, depressions, elevation which later became ocean, mountains etc. the lower lying
mantle is the region the distribution of continental crust changes over a certain geological
time period. The joining region of mantle and crust had large temperature and pressure
differences resulting the formation of plutonic rocks layer of bedrock. There appeared no
p-wave on this region but the surface waves were generated (l-waves and r-waves) due to
waves in lower region of mantle.
6. Describe the types of rocks and composition found in each layer. Write down the possible cause
of problems in engineering on the basis of earth’s interior structure.
Basically, it is known that earth is 5 billion years old and in terms of gross structure, earth is a layered
planet. Each of these layers can be defined by a certain composition, making up earth’s core, mantle and
crust. (Earth is also layered according to the way rocks display different physical chrematistics). These
layers are the lithosphere, a rigid outer layer, containing the crust and upper most mantle; the atmosphere,
a weaker layer in the mantle and the mesosphere, a stronger layer in the lower mantle.
The three main layers of Earth include:
1. The crust 1 % of Earth’s volume
2. The mantle 84 % and
3. The core (inner and outer combined, 15 %)
CRUST: Earth’s crust is most accessible to study, but also is most complex with many more variations in
aluminum, iron and calcium. These elements combine to form the most abundant minerals in the Earth’s
crust. The crust of earth is divided into two types: oceanic and continental. All three rock types (igneous,
sedimentary and metamorphic) can be found in Earth’s crust. Basalt (dense igneous rock) is a type of rock
which is a good representative of most oceanic crust. This rock is mafic (the name mafic refers to its high
magnesium and iron content) primarily composed of plagioclase feldspar (Calcium rich) olivine,
amphibole and pyroxene. Continental crust has more of range of compositions, but for our purposes we
will assume that its average compositions is granitic (less dense), having many similar properties to the
felsic rock granite (the name felsic refers to its high feldspar and silica content). Granite is composed of
quartz, potassium-rich feldspar, and micas. Since mafic rocks contain heavier minerals, oceanic crust is
denser than continental crust (with densities 3.0 and 2.7 gmcm -3, respectively). On average, continental
crust is much thicker and older than oceanic crust. The boundary between the crust and underlying mantel
is termed the Mohorovicic discontinuity, often referred to as the Moho.
Crust is further divided into two layers which are separated be boundary called conrad discontinuity.
SIAL:
It is the upper most part of continental crust. It has extended up to a depth of 11Km. in this
region, there is rich of silicon and aluminum, hence called SIAL. Si-contents are predominant in
this region. It is acidic rock. All types of rocks are found to be explored on the earth’s surface.
Rock composition is of granitic to granodiorite, light colored rocks.
SIMA:
It is the lower part of continental crust. It extends up to a depth of 22km. In this region, there is
rich of silicon and magnesium. About 41% of silica contents are available in this region.
Magnesium is predominant in this region. It is basic rock. Rock composition is of basaltic
composition, heavy and dark colored.
MANTLE:
It is a solid rock layer between the crust and the core. It is about 2885Km thick, the mantle is 82
% of Earth’s volume. Mantle composes of ultramafic rock called peridotite. Below ~100-141km,
the rock is hot enough to flow. It convicts hot mantle rises, cold mantle sinks. There are
altogether three subdivisions: upper, transitional and lower. Laboratory experiments indicate that
peridotite has similar physical properties to account for the mantle’s density and observed rates
of seismic waves transmission. Also, sample from the field show peridotites below crustal rocks
in areas of deformation where rocks have been uplifted and exposed at the surface. Peridotite
inclusions are also found in kimberlite pipes, cone shaped bodies of rock where magma has been
volcanically emplaces into pre-existing rocks. Kimberlite deposits contain certain minerals (one
of which diamond) which can only form under high temperature and pressure conditions found
between 100-300 km depth. The inclusion of peridotite in the kimberlites are thought to
represent pieces of the mantle brought up to the surface during eruption. A final piece of
evidence used to determine the mantle’s composition comes from stony meteorites, since they
are thought to be remnants of material left over from the formation of the solar system, and they
have peridotite composition. In earth’s lower mantle, below the transition zone, grater pressures
cause rock of the same composition as peridotite to undergo phase changes to form higher
density material.
CORE:
The inner part of the earth which is marked be Gutenberg Discontinuity near a depth of 2900 km
up to the center of the earth. The core is composed mostly of iron and nickel. It is further divided
into two parts.
i. OUTER CORE:
The outer core is composed mostly of iron and nickel, with these metals found in
liquid form, the outer core reaches between 7,200- and 9,000-degrees Fahrenheit
(4,000 and 5,000 degrees Celsius) and is estimated to be 2,300 km thick. It is the
movement of the liquid within the outer core that generates Earth’s magnetic field.
ii. INNER CORE:

The inner core is the hottest part of our planet, at the temperatures between 9,000-
and 13,000-degrees Fahrenheit (5,000 and 7,000 degrees Celsius). The solid layer is
smaller than our moon at depth 1200 km thick and is composed mostly of iron. The
iron is under so much pressure from the overlying planet that it cannot melt and stays
in a solid state.
The cause of problems in engineering on the basic of earth’s interior structure are as
follows:
TECTONIC PLATES:
The lithosphere, which is the rigid outermost shell of a planet the crust and upper mantel, is
broken up into tectonic plates. The earth’s lithosphere is composed of seven or eight major plates
(depending on how they are defined) and many minor plates. Where the plates meet, their
relative motion determines the type of boundary, and oceanic trench formation occur along these
plate boundaries. The relative movement of the plates typically ranges from zero to 100 mm,
annually.
7. Describe the types of plate boundaries with suitable diagram in detail.

There are three kinds of plate tectonic boundaries: divergent, convergent and transform plate
boundaries which are characterized on the basis of the movement of the plate. The different
types of plate boundaries with their description are given below:
i. Divergent Boundary (Constructive)
A divergent boundary occurs when two tectonic plates move away from each other.
Along these boundaries, lava spews from long fissures and geysers spurt superheated
water. Frequent earthquakes strike along rift. Beneath the rift, molten-magma rock-
rises from the mantle. It oozes up into the gap and hardens into solid rock, forming
new crust on the torn edges of the plates. Magma from the mantle solidifies into
basalt, a dark, dense rock that underlies the ocean floor. Thus, at divergent
boundaries, oceanic crust, made of basalt is created.
ii. Convergent boundaries (Destructive or active margins)
They occur where two plates slides toward each other to form either a subduction
zone (one piece move underneath the other) or a continental collision. At zones of
ocean to continent subduction (e.g. The Andes mountain range in South America, and
the cascade mountains in western united states), the dense oceanic lithosphere
plunges beneath the less dense continent. Earthquake trace the path of the downward
moving plate as it descends into asthenosphere, a trench forms, and as the subducted
plate is heated it releases volatiles, mostly water from hydrous minerals, into the
surrounding mantle. The addition of water lowers the melting point of the mantle
material above the subducting slab, causing it to melt. The magma that results
typically leads to volcanism. At zones of ocean-to-ocean subduction (e.g. Aleutian
island, Mariana island and the Japanese island arc), older, cooler, denser crust slips
beneath less dense crust. This causes earthquakes and a deep trench to form in to form
curving chains of volcanic islands. Deep marine trenches are typically associated with
subduction zones, and the basins that develop along the active boundary are often
called “foreland basins”. Closure of ocean basins can occur at the continent-to-
continent boundaries (e.g. Himalayas and Alps) collision between masses of granitic
continental lithosphere; neither mass is subducted; plate edges are compressed,
folded, uplifted.
iii. Transform boundaries (Conservative)

Two plates sliding past each other forms a transform plate boundary. Natural or
human-made structures that cross a transform boundary are often spilt into pieces and
carried in opposite directions. Rocks that line the boundary are pulverized as the
plates grind along, creating a linear fault valley or undersea canyon. As the plates
alternately jam and jump against each other, earthquakes rattle through a wide
boundary zone. In contrast to convergent and divergent boundaries, no magma is
formed. Thus, crust is cracked and broken at transform margins, but is not created or
destroyed.
Figure 1 this image shows the three main types of plate boundaries
8. Elaborate terminologies of foreshock, main shock, aftershock, magnitude and intensity.

Tabulate magnitude scale and intensity scale with suitable examples.
FORESHOCK:
A foreshock is an earthquake that occurs before a larger seismic event (the mainshock) and is
related to it in both time and space. The designation of an earthquake as foreshock, mainshock or
aftershock is only possible after the full sequence of events has happened.
Foreshock activity has been detected for about 40% of all moderate to large earthquakes, and
about 70% for events of M>7.0. They occur from a matter of minutes to days or even longer
before the main shock; for example, the 2002 Sumatra earthquake is regarded as a foreshock of
the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake with a delay of more than two years between the two events.
The increase in foreshock activity is difficult to quantify for individual earthquakes but becomes
apparent when combining the results of many different events. From such combined
observations, the increase before the mainshock is observed to be of inverse power law type.
This may either indicate that foreshocks cause stress changes resulting in the mainshock or that
the increase is related to a general increase in stress in the region.
MAIN SHOCK:
The mainshock is the largest earthquake in a sequence, sometimes preceded by one or more
foreshocks, and almost always followed by many aftershocks.
AFTERSHOCK:
An aftershock is a smaller earthquake that follows a larger earthquake, in the same area of the
main shock, caused as the displaced crust adjusts to the effects of the main shock. Large
earthquakes can have hundreds to thousands of instrumentally detectable aftershocks, which
steadily decrease in magnitude and frequency according to known laws. In some earthquakes the
main rupture happens in two or more steps, resulting in multiple main shocks. These are known
as doublet earthquakes, and in general can be distinguished from aftershocks in having similar
magnitudes and nearly identical seismic waveforms.
EARTHQUAKE MAGNITUDE AND INTENSITY:
Magnitude and Intensity measure different characteristics of earthquakes. Magnitude measures
the energy released at the source of the earthquake. Magnitude is determined from measurements
on seismographs. Intensity measures the strength of shaking produced by the earthquake at a
certain location. Intensity is determined from effects on people, human structures, and the natural
environment.
Magnitude Intensity Description Effects Examples
scale Number
0.2-2.0 I Imperceptibl Recorded be sensitive 100 firecrackers,
e instrument only hand grenade.
2.0-2.9 II Feeble Recorded by all seismographs Stick of dynamite
and felt by experienced person
only
3.0-3.9 III Very slight Felt by several persons at rest. It 1-ton bomb,
is strong enough for the duration Chernobyl
and direction to be recorded explosion, 1986
4.0-4.9 IV Slight Felt generally; most sleepers are Small atom bomb
awakened and bells ring
5.0-5.9 V Weak Trees sway and all suspended Nagasaki atom
objects swing; damage by bomb
overturning and falling of loose
objects
6.0-6.9 VI Moderate General alarm; walls crack; Little boy atom
plaster fails bomb dropped on
Hiroshima
7.0-7.9 VII Strong Car drivers seriously disturbed, Equivalent to all
masonry fissured, chimneys fall, bombs used in
poorly constructed buildings WW2
damage.
8.0-8.9 VIII Very Strong Some houses collapse where Tsar bomb,
ground begins to crack. largest
thermonuclear
weapon ever
tested.
9.0-9.9 IX Severe Ground cracks badly; many Largest
buildings destroyed and railway earthquake ever
lines bent, landslides on steep recorded in Chile,
slopes 1960
10.0+ X Devastating Few buildings remain standing, Estimate for a
bridges destroy. 2km rocky
meteorite
impacting at
25kms-1
9. Discuss seismicity in Nepal. Explain the mechanism of recent Gorkha earthquake in

2015.
The high seismicity of the sub-Himalayan arc is attributed to the slow northerly movement of the
Indian ‘tectonic’ plate at rates ranging between 48 mm and 53 mm per year, in its attempt to get
thrust under the continental massif to the north the Tibetan plateau in the case of Nepal. This is
called ‘subduction’ in plate tectonics and results in a massive collision of two opposite
continental blocks, leading to the release of earthquake energy through the already-existing weak
planes in the rocks of the region that go by the name ‘thrust faults’. Three such features have
been mapped all along the sub-Himalayan region, namely, the Main Frontal Thrust (MFT), the
Main Boundary Thrust (MBT) and the Main Central Thrust (MCT). Any one of them is
capable of second earthquake of magnitude 7.3 on May 12 epicenter 78 km west of the town of
Namche Bazar near Mt. Everest and northeast of Kathmandu, it would appear that both these
quakes have been brought about by the activation of the main central thrust. Only detailed
geological investigation will throw light on this aspect.
Briefly, seismicity in Nepal is listed below:
i. Nepal lies on the central portion of the Himalayan Karakorum of length 2400km
ii. It covers 800 km. in length on Nepal Himalaya.
iii. Tectonically, Indian plate is submerging towards the Eurasian plate at the rate of
2cm per year.
iv. Hence, Nepal with a whole Himalayan Karakorum is seismically active zone.
10.Introduction and mechanism of recent Gorkha Earthquake:
The strong earthquake on April 25, 2015 (7.8 Mw) and the aftershock on May 12, 2015 (7.3Mw)
claimed the lives of 8,659, plus 21,150 people injured and huge economic loss together with
serious damage on eight World Heritage Sites. Our two field surveys in the month of form May
9-21, 2015 and 19-23 July, 2015 revealed understanding of damages to traditional towns,
historical monuments and modern buildings. Regionally damages on buildings are confined to
the traditional houses which are remnants of or renovated after then 8.1 magnitude 1934 AD
earthquake. Widespread cades of inadequate engineering and construction practices for RCC
(Reinforced Cement Concrete) building and renovated old buildings have been severely affected.
The affected region includes the main shock along the 150 km long rupture zone towards east.
The aftershock reached farther south at a shallower depth towards the end of the eastern rupture
zone. As a result, damages inflicted in the structures from both quakes revealed different shaking
directions. The April 25 main shock caused eastward leaning structures while May 12 aftershock
caused southward leaning and collapsed structures. It is important to identify whether the
direction is due to aftershock at the end of initial rupture zone or of it represents newly exposed
faults.
Mechanism:
According to the United States Geological Survey (USGS), the earthquake was caused by a
sudden thrust, or release of built-up stress, along the major fault line where the Indian plate
carrying India, is slowly diving underneath the Eastern plate, carrying much of Europe and Asia.
Kathmandu, situated on a block of crust approximately 120 Km wide and 60km long, reportedly
shifted 3m to the south in a matter of just 30 second.
Nepal lies towards the southern limit of diffuse collisional boundary where the Indian place
under thrusts the Eastern plate, occupying the central sector of the Himalayan arc, nearly one-
third of the 2400 km long Himalayas. Geologically, the Nepal Himalayas are sub-divided into
five tectonic zones from north to south and east to west and almost parallel to sub-parallel. These
five district Morpho-geotectonic zones are: (1) Terai plain (2) Sub Himalaya (Sivalik Range) (3)
Lesser Himalayas (Mahabharat Range and mid valleys) (4) higher Himalayas and (5) Inner
Himalayas (Tibetan Tethys). Each if these zones are clearly identified by their morphological,
geological and tectonic features.
The convergence rate between the plates in central Nepal is about 45mm per year. The location,
magnitude and focal mechanism of the earthquake suggest that it was caused by a slip along the
Main Frontal Thrust
The earthquake’s effect published in 2014, of the Main Frontal Thrust, on average a great
earthquake occurs every 750±140 and 870±350 years in the east Nepal region. A study from
2015 found a 700 years delay between earthquakes in the region. The study also suggests that
because of tectonic stress buildup, the earthquake from 1934 in Nepal and the 2015 quake are
connected, following a historic earthquake pattern. A 2016 study on historical great (M≥8)
earthquake pairs and cycles found that associated great earthquakes are likely to occur in west
China region through the 2020s.
11. Describe the prediction of earthquakes. Elaborate geographical distribution of

earthquakes.
Scientists are a long way from being able to predict earthquakes. A good prediction must be
accurate as to where an earthquake will occur, when it will occur, and at what magnitude it will
be so that people can evacuate. An unnecessary evacuation is expensive and causes people not to
believe authorities the next time an evacuation is ordered.
Where an earthquake will occur is the easiest feature to predict. Scientists know that earthquakes
take place at plate boundaries and tend to happen where they’ve occurred before. Earthquake-
prone communities should always be prepared for an earthquake. These communities can
implement building codes to make structures earthquake safe.
When an earthquake will occur is much more difficult to predict. Since stress on a fault builds up
at the same rate over time, earthquakes should occur at regular intervals. But so far scientists
cannot predict when quakes will occur even to within a few years. Signs sometimes come before
a large earthquake. Small quakes, called foreshocks, sometimes occur a few seconds to a few
weeks before a major quake. However, many earthquakes do not have foreshocks and small
earthquakes are not necessarily followed by a large earthquake. Often, the rocks around a fault
will dilate as microfractures form. Ground tilting, caused by the buildup of stress in the rocks,
may precede a large earthquake, but not always. Water levels in wells fluctuate as water moves
into or out of fractures before an earthquake. This is also an uncertain predictor of large
earthquakes. The relative arrival times of P-waves and S-waves also decreases just before an
earthquake occurs.
Folklore tells of animals behaving erratically just before an earthquake. Mostly these anecdotes
are told after the earthquake. If indeed animals sense danger from earthquakes or tsunami,
scientists do not know what it is they could be sensing, but they would like to find out
According to plate tectonics, the global distribution of epicenters is related to boundaries

between lithospheric plates. Earthquakes at plate boundaries are called interplate earthquakes.
Less commonly, earthquakes also take place in plate interiors and these are called intraplate
earthquakes. The most active region in the world corresponds to the margins of the Pacific
Ocean. Earthquakes with large magnitudes take place along this zone in the Americas from the
Aleutian Islands to southern Chile and from the Kamchatka peninsula in Asia to New Zealand.
Besides shallow earthquakes, throughout most of this long region, intermediate and deep shocks
take place along the margin of Central and South America and on the other side of the Pacific
along the systems of island arcs (Aleutians, the Kuriles, Japan the Philippines)
Another large seismically active region is known as the Mediterranean-Alpine-Himalayas region
and extends from West to East from the Azores to the eastern coast of Asia. This region is
related to the boundary between the plates of Eurasia to the North and Africa, Arabia, and India-
Australia to the South. Its seismicity involves shallow, intermediate, and deep earthquakes. A
third seismic region is formed by earthquakes located on ocean ridges that form the boundaries
of oceanic plates, such as the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, East Pacific Rise, etc. In these regions
earthquakes of shallow depths are concentrated in relatively narrow bands following the trend of
the oceanic ridges. In general, boundaries between oceanic plates and between oceanic and
continental plates have simpler distributions of seismicity than do boundaries between
continental plates.
12. Describe the prediction of volcanism.
Techniques to predict volcanic eruptions
i. Changes in ground level:
Tilt meters have long been used to study active volcanoes by monitoring their
changing shape and steepness before and during eruptions. When
pressurized magma enters the magma chamber beneath a volcano, the ground is
forced upward, causing the slopes of the volcano to tilt away from the center of uplift.
Before an eruption occurs, magma flows toward the surface, deflating the magma
chamber and causing a reversal in the tilt directions. This characteristic behavior,
coupled with measurements of earthquake frequency and magnitude, several tilt
meters may be placed around a volcanoes dome to accurately take measurements.
They are mainly used successfully by volcanologists around the world to predict
eruptions hours to days before the actual event.
ii. Historical pattern of activity:
The eruption recurrence interval is old historical data and records of geological
information used by volcanologists to predict and figure out the statistics of how
often a volcano erupts and size of the eruption. Now we look at volcanic deposits
around the volcano to determine their age, type (lava flows, mudflows, ash flows),
size, and distance from the volcano. This data will help to determine if the volcano is
active.
Recording historic eruptions and modern volcano-monitoring in themselves are

insufficient to fully determine the characteristic behavior of a volcano, because a time
record of such information, though perhaps long in human terms, is much too short in
geologic terms to permit reliable predictions of possible future behavior. A
comprehensive investigation of any volcano must also include the careful, systematic
mapping of the nature, volume, and distribution of the products of prehistoric
eruptions, as well as the determination of their ages by modern isotopic and other
dating methods. Research on the volcano's geologic past extends the data base for
refined estimates of the recurrence intervals of active versus dormant periods in the
history of the volcano. With such information in hand, scientists can construct so-
called "volcanic hazards" maps that show the zones of greatest risk around the
volcano and that designate which zones are particularly susceptible to certain types of
volcanic hazards (lava flows, ash fall, toxic gases, mudflows and associated flooding,
etc.).
iv. Gas measurements:
Gas samples are collected from fumaroles and from active vents. The composition of
the gas or a change in the rate of gas emission provides additional information on what
is happening inside the volcano. Changes in fumaroles gas composition, or in the
emission rate of SO2 and other gases, may be related to variation in magma supply
rate, change in magma type, or modifications in the pathways of gas escape induced by
magma movement.
Gas can also be observed by looking at the superheated steam which

is produced at high temperatures; this usually is a good indication of activity prior to
an eruption as a result of shallow water rich magma.
v. Seismic activity:
As magma moves into the reservoir during inflation, it must make room for itself by
rupturing or crowding aside the solidified lava that surrounds the reservoir. Such
underground ruptures produced seismic waves that travel through the volcano and are
recorded by a network of seismometers placed on the volcanoes surface. Ground
motions sensed by the seismometer are converted into electronic signals, which are
transmitted by radio and are recorded on seismographs located at the volcano
observatory. The seismic data are analyzed to determine the time, location, depth, and
magnitude of the earthquakes. Mapping the earthquake activity allows scientists to
track the subsurface movement of magma.
Magma movement and the onset of an eruption produce a distinctive seismic pattern
called harmonic tremor. Seismologist must sort through the records of hundreds of
earthquakes and determine which are related to the volcano and which were caused by
man-induced or natural forces.
vi. Cone temperature:

Remote-sensing imagery from satellites can sometimes show up thermal anomalies
near the cones of the volcanoes, caused when rising magma heats the rocks close to
the surface on active vents, showing a clear increase in cone temperature prior to an
eruption. Images shown by infrared heat sensors detected by the satellite send back
images of even the slightest of temperature changes, which makes it a very reliable
early warning system. Satellite surveillance offers some of the best future prospects
for forecasting eruptions
vii. Changes in magnetic field:

Rocks contain minerals such as magnetite that are magnetic. Such magnetic materials
generate magnetic field. However, above a temperature called the Curie temperature,
these magnetic materials show no magnetism. Thus, if a magma body enters a
volcano, the body itself will show no magnetism, and if it is heated the surrounding
rocks to temperature greater than the Curie Temperature (about 500 oC for magnetite)
the magnetic field over the movement of magma can sometimes be tracked.
13. Illustrate the types of volcanic products in detail.

a. Gases:
Gases are invariably emitted during volcanic eruptions. Indeed, the clearest characteristic
of many eruptions is the column of ash-laden gas rising above them. The gases can be
released with immense energy, driving columns of ash tens of kilometers high. Velocities
of up to 600ms-1 have been calculated for the gases leaving the vent in some historic
eruptions. The best sampling procedures have shown that H2O and CO2 are by far the
major species. Whereas for most volcanic emissions, water composes 90% or more of the
gas, in some CO2 appears to be the dominant component.
SO2, HCl, H2, and H2S plus He, and other noble gases, together with those metallic
halides and sulphides that are volatile at magmatic temperatures, are generally present as
subsidiary constituents. The actual gas compositions are no doubt, highly variable and
dependent on the precise geochemistry of the associated magma. Yellow crystals of
Sulphur grown around high-temperature gas vents provide a common.
b. Lava:
The liquid congeals fast (relative to large intrusions) as they lose heat and volatiles,
forming rocks that are typically finely crystalline or even glassy. The magma that has
flowed out on to the surface is called lava. All lavas contains gases, but due to the high
pressure that prevails in the interior of the earth the content of gases and vapors in the
magma are more. The temperature of lavas during eruptions usually ranges between
900oC to 1200oC. Like magma, lava is also divided into three types such as acidic,
intermediate and basic depending upon the silica content.
c. Pyroclastic deposits:
The violent release of gas from volcanic vents is associated with expulsion of fragments
of rock and or disrupted lava. The accumulation of such fragments gives rise to a
pyroclastic deposit. Numerous terms are employed to denote different types of pyro clast.
d. Tuff:
It is another useful term referring to all consolidating pyroclastic deposits, again
regardless of particle size. Coarse (particle size average over 64mm), unsorted proximal
accumulations, often within vents, are described as agglomerates. The welded tuffs are
commonly known as ignimbrites.
In certain instances, a great cloud of superheated vapors and incandescent rock materials
and volcanic ash are referred to as glowing avalanches.
e. Volcanic Blocks:
They are the largest masses of rock blown out. These are either the masses of the
solidified lava of earlier eruptions or those of the pre-existing rocks. They are usually
angular and the fragments is always above 32mm. Thus, they are huge solid fragments
ejected during a volcanic activity.
14. Describe the types of river system with suitable figures.

1. Braided Rivers:
These rivers are developed in mountains terrain on higher
energy gradients. During the low flow periods, permanent
channels are developed. These channels are constituting
ripple crossed bedded sands. These channels are active
during flood stage and these can produce the cross beds in
layer scales. The sediments formed are pebbly and sandy in
nature. Also, a braided driver in a single channel river but
consists of a network of small channels separated by small
and often temporary islands called braid bars or, in British
usage, alit or eyots. It also included point bars and sand
bars along the channel. Braiding occurs when stream
discharge is insufficient to transport the available load.
2. Meandering Rivers:
These are the curved rivers whose curve can’t be
enclosed within two parallel lines. These are
formed in coastal areas, lower gradient. Because
of the continuous flow, fine sediments were seen.
In inner bends of meanders cross laminated sands
are constructed. Channels are separated by leaves
from flood plains that are comprised of finer
grained muds and sands deposited after breach of
levees during flood stage, usually vegetated. Flood
stage can lead to cut off meanders and breakthrough of river. A meander, in general, is a
bend in a sinuous watercourse or river. A meander forms when moving water in a stream
erodes the outer banks and widens its valley, and the inner part of the river has less
energy and deposits silt. A stream if any volume may assume a meandering course,
alternately eroding sediments from the outside of the bend of the bend and depositing
them in the inside.
3. Anastomosing Rivers:
Anastomosing rivers are the multi-channel rivers situated on alluvial plains. Most often
they seem to form under relatively low energetic conditions near a base on the basis of
channel planform only. It can be defining as an anastomosing river is composed of two or
more interconnected channels that enclose flood basins. Anastomosing rivers are usually
formed by avulsion i.e. flow diversions that cause the formation of new channels on the
floodplain. As a product of avulsion, anastomosing rivers essentially form in two ways.
i. By formation of bypass.
ii. By splitting of the diverted abusive flow.
4. Straight Rivers:
Straight river is generally regarded as one of the typical river patterns in conventional
classifications in terms of their channel plain land forms. These include rivers which can
be enclosed within the two parallel lines. As the time passes, they curve as per the
gradient and path of river. The curvature is given by the sinuosity equation. However,
very few straight patterns were found to be distributed in wider spatial and temporal
spans in the self-adjusted fluvial rivers.
15. Explain the mechanism of river in detail.

The mechanism of river are as follows:
1. Erosion
Erosion takes place through various actions which are as follows:
i. Hydraulic action:
 It is the work of turbulence in the water. In other words, it is the force of moving water.
Running water causes friction in the joints of rocks in a stream channel.
 It breaks fragments of the river bed and the blanks of the river. These fragments are
carried along by the river which is called load.
ii. Abrasion/Corrosion:
When a load is carried by the river, the load hits against its bed and the sides (banks) of
the river (i.e. bounced and dragged). As result, bed and banks materials started to pluck
out and erodes rapidly. Abrasion is the strong process of erosion
iii. Attrition:
When particles of the load themselves break into smaller pieces (worn down), the process
is said to be attrition. When thrown against the bed and banks of the rivers, shapes of load
turned into rounded and the edges of the load changes to smooth.
iv. Solution/Corrosion:
When chemicals in the water dissolves certain minerals in rocks, it is said to be
solution. For example, Carbonic acid slowly dissolves limestone.
2.Transporation:
Transportation mainly occurs by
i. Traction:
Larger and heavier rocks/gravel are dragged or rolled along the bed.
ii. Saltation (salatim: by leaps/jumps):
Smaller and lighter rock fragments and sand hop and bounce along the river bed.
At times, the distinction between traction and saltation may be difficult to determine.
iii. Suspension:
Some of the load like slit and clay (fine-graded) will float along. They may only be
deposited when stream velocity reaches near 0. Turbulence in the water is crucial in
holding a load of sediments.
iv. Solution:
Some minerals are transported in dissolved from. Especially chemical solution
derived from minerals like limestone or dolomite.
Figure 2: How a river transports its load.
i. Deposition:
When the river loses its ability to carry sediments/loads, it will suddenly drop the
materials on the bed and sides of the river. The phenomenon is called deposition.
Deposition occurs due to following two process:
i. When volume decreases

 Presence of permeable rocks
 Receding flood waters
ii. When speed decreases:

 It enters a lake
 It enters a calm sea
 It enters a gently sloping plain
16. Explain relationship between velocity and size of sediments prior to erosion,
transportation and deposition.
The relationship can be explained with the help of
A Haustrum curve is a special type of graph that shows how a river velocity affects
competence and its ability to erode particles of different sizes.
There are two curves on the Hjulstrom Curve, a critical erosion velocity curve and a mean
settling velocity curve. The critical erosion curve shows the minimum velocity needed to
transport and erode a particle. The mean settling velocity shows the minimum speed that the
particle sizes will be deposited by the river. The shaded areas between the curves show the
different process that will be taking place for particles that lie in those shaded areas.
As an example, a river flowing at 10cms -1 will transport clay, slit and sand particles but will
deposit gravel, pebble and boulder particles. Conversely, a river flowing at 100cms-1 will erode
and transport large clay particles, slit particles, sand particles and most gravel particles. It will
transport all but the largest of pebbles and will deposit boulders.
The easiest way to read the curve is to draw a horizontal line form the velocity you’re trying to
read and seeing which shaded area it crosses the particle size you’re interested in. This will tell
you whether that particle is eroded, transported or deposited at that velocity.
There are a few interesting things to note about Hjulstrom Curve. The first is that clay sized
particles don’t appear to have a mean settling velocity. This is because these particles are so fine
that a river would have to be almost perfectly stationary in order for them to fall out of solution.
In addition, the small particles seem to have an erosive velocity that’s the same as the velocity
for larger particle. This is because smaller particles are cohesive, they stick together, making
them harder to dislodge and erode without high velocities.

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Kathmandu University

Department of Civil & Geomatics Engineering

1. Why do Civil Engineers require Geology? Explain with suitable examples.

4. Discuss the significance of internal structure of the earth.

ii. INNER CORE:

7. Describe the types of plate boundaries with suitable diagram in detail.

i. Divergent Boundary (Constructive)

ii. Convergent boundaries (Destructive or active margins)

iii. Transform boundaries (Conservative)

8. Elaborate terminologies of foreshock, main shock, aftershock, magnitude and intensity.

9. Discuss seismicity in Nepal. Explain the mechanism of recent Gorkha earthquake in

Briefly, seismicity in Nepal is listed below:

10.Introduction and mechanism of recent Gorkha Earthquake:

11. Describe the prediction of earthquakes. Elaborate geographical distribution of

According to plate tectonics, the global distribution of epicenters is related to boundaries

12. Describe the prediction of volcanism.

Techniques to predict volcanic eruptions

i. Changes in ground level:

ii. Historical pattern of activity:

Recording historic eruptions and modern volcano-monitoring in themselves are

iv. Gas measurements:

Gas can also be observed by looking at the superheated steam which

vi. Cone temperature:

vii. Changes in magnetic field:

13. Illustrate the types of volcanic products in detail.

14. Describe the types of river system with suitable figures.

15. Explain the mechanism of river in detail.

Figure 2: How a river transports its load.

Deposition occurs due to following two process:

i. When volume decreases

ii. When speed decreases:

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