CHAPTER 1

1.1 INTRODUCTION
A railway brake is a type of brake used on the cars of railway trains to enable
deceleration, control acceleration (downhill) or to keep them immobile when parked.
While the basic principle is similar to that on road vehicle usage, operational features are
more complex because of the need to control multiple linked carriages and to be effective
on vehicles left without a prime mover. Clasp brakes are one type of brakes historically
used on trains.

A moving train contains energy, known as kinetic energy, which needs to be

removed from the train in order to cause it to stop. The simplest way of doing this is to
convert the energy into heat. The conversion is usually done by applying a contact
material to the rotating wheels or to discs attached to the axles. The material creates
friction and converts the kinetic energy into heat. The wheels slow down and eventually
the train stops. The material used for braking is normally in the form of a block or pad.

The vast majority of the world's trains are equipped with braking systems which
use compressed air as the force to push blocks on to wheels or pads on to discs. These
systems are known as "air brakes" or "pneumatic brakes". The compressed air is
transmitted along the train through a "brake pipe” or, in North America, a “train
line". Changing the level of air pressure in the pipe causes a change in the state of the
brake on each vehicle. It can apply the brake, release it or hold it "on" after a partial
application. The system is in widespread use throughout the world.

The brakes are used on the coaches of railway trains to enable deceleration, control
acceleration (downhill) or to keep them standing when parked. While the basic principle
is similar from road vehicle, the usage and operational features are more complex because
of the need to control multiple linked carriages and to be effective on vehicles left without
a prime mover.

In the control of any braking system the important factors that govern braking
1
action in any vehicle are pressure, surface area in contact, amount of heat generation and
braking material used. Keeping in view the safety of human life and physical resources
the basic requirements of brake are:

The brake must be strong enough to stop the vehicle during an emergency with in
shortest possible distance.

There should be no skidding during brake application and driver must have proper
control over the vehicle during emergency.

Effectiveness of brakes should remain constant even on prolonged application or

during descending on a down gradient

Brake must keep the vehicle in a stationary position even when the driver is not present.

Rail or train transportation is one of important and economical transportation

systems available. In rail transportation, a series of vehicles are run by means of wheels
and guided track to carry passengers or freight stock from one place to another. A series
of vehicles are pulled by single or multiple locomotives. Locomotives are powered by
steam or diesel engines or through electricity. Depending on type of vehicles carried by
a train, they classified as passenger and freight trains. Travelling speed is an important
parameter in passenger trains whereas maximum tonnage carried is crucial for freight
carriers.

Brakes are used in trains for deceleration or to maintain constant speed while
travelling downhill. In trains, brakes can be applied through mechanical loading or
electrical systems or via a combination of both. Tread or block braking is popular and
frequently used mechanical braking system in trains. In tread braking, friction material is
pressed against tread region of a railway wheel to reduce speed or for bringing train to
rest. Tread braking is famous for its simple mechanism and operation. Cast-iron and
polymer composites are important friction materials used for braking of trains. All trains
operated by Indian Railways, except for few super fast trains, employ tread braking. In

2
Indian Railways, locomotive wheel gauge (see Fig. 1.1) for trains running on broad gauge
tracks is set to 1596_0.5 mm during initial mounting. The permissible gauge during
operation is 1596+3/-0.5 mm. For broad gauge tracks, failure from wheel gauge widening
is taken to occur when wheel gauge exceeds 1599 mm, while failure from gauge
condemning is taken to occur when wheel gauge goes below 1595.5 mm. Excessive
wheel gauge increase may lead to climbing of wheels on to rail and excessive gauge
reduction can cause slipping of wheels on to ballast. Failed wheels should be replaced
with new wheels to avoid train derailments.

In India, locomotives are classified according to track gauge (broad, meter or

narrow), power (diesel or electric), and based on whether it is a freight or a passenger
carrier. Most locomotives operated by Indian Railways are for broad gauge and have
power ratings from around 2000-6000 HP. Wheel gauge widening in diesel and electric
locomotives in Indian Railways is a problem that started appearing from 2004 onwards.

The increase in tonnage per axle and change from cast-iron to polymer based
composite brake pads implemented at around this time are believed to be responsible for
triggering the wheel gauge widening process. Indian Railways currently employs three
kinds of brake blocks: cast-iron, low friction \L-type" and high friction \K-type"
3
composite brake blocks. To identify conditions that can lead to gauge widening, in this
work, systematic studies were conducted to (i) Obtain brake block characteristics and
estimate heat dissipation rates while braking with various brake blocks used for tread
braking by Indian Railways, (ii) Estimate heat partitioning and wheel running
temperatures in tread braking, (iii) Model and identify the underlying mechanism for
wheel gauge change and braking conditions on locomotive wheel gauge change.

4
 1.2 HISTORY

In the earliest days of railways, braking technology was primitive. The first trains
had brakes operative on the locomotive tender and on vehicles in the train, where
"porters" or, in the United States brakemen, travelling for the purpose on those vehicles
operated the brakes. Some railways fitted a special deep-noted brake whistle to
locomotives to indicate to the porters the necessity to apply the brakes. All the brakes at
this stage of development were applied by operation of a screw and linkage to brake
blocks applied to wheel treads, and these brakes could be used when vehicles were
parked. In the earliest times, the porters travelled in crude shelters outside the vehicles,
but "assistant guards" who travelled inside passenger vehicles, and who had access to a
brake wheel at their posts, supplanted them. The braking effort achievable was limited
and it was also unreliable, as the application of brakes by guards depended upon their
hearing and responding quickly to a whistle for brakes.

An early development was the application of a steam brake to locomotives, where

boiler pressure could be applied to brake blocks on the locomotive wheels. As train
speeds increased, it became essential to provide some more powerful braking system
capable of instant application and release by the train operator, described as a continuous
brake because it would be effective continuously along the length of the train.

In the United Kingdom, the Abbots Rip ton rail accident in January 1876 was
aggravated by the long stopping distances of express trains without continuous brakes,
which – it became clear – in adverse conditions could considerably exceed those assumed
when positioning signals. This had become apparent from the trials on railway brakes
carried out at Newark in the previous year, to assist a Royal Commission then considering
railway accidents. In the words of a contemporary railway official, these showed that
under normal conditions it required a distance of 800 to 1200 yards to bring a train to rest
when travelling at 45½ to 48½ mph, this being much below the ordinary travelling speed
of the fastest express trains. Railway officials were not prepared for this result and the
necessity for a great deal more brake power was at once admitted. Trials conducted after
5
Abbots Rip ton reported the following (for an express train roughly matching one of those
involved, like it on a 1 in 200 fall, but unlike it braking under favorable conditions) [2]

However, there was no clear technical solution to the problem, because of the necessity
of achieving a reasonably uniform rate of braking effort throughout a train, and because
of the necessity to add and remove vehicles from the train at frequent points on the
journey. (At these dates, unit trains were a rarity).

The chief types of solution were:

• A spring system: James Newall, carriage builder to the Lancashire and Yorkshire
Railway, in 1853 obtained a patent for a system whereby a rotating rod passing the
length of the train was used to wind up the brake levers on each carriage against
the force of conical springs carried in cylinders. The rod, mounted on the carriage
roofs in rubber journals, was fitted with universal joints and short sliding sections
to allow for compression of the buffers. The brakes were controlled from one end
of the train. The guard wound up the rod, compressing the springs, to release the
brakes; they were held off by a single ratchet under his control (although in an
emergency the driver could draw on a cord to release the ratchet). When the ratchet
was released the springs applied the brakes. If the train divided, the brakes were
not held off by the ratchet in the guard's compartment and the springs in each
carriage forced the brakes onto the wheel. Excess play in the couplings limited the

6
 effectiveness of the device to about five carriages; additional guards and brake
compartments were necessary if this number were exceeded. This apparatus was
sold to a few companies and the system received recommendation from the Board
of Trade. The L&Y conducted a simultaneous trial with a similar system designed
by another employee, Charles Fay, but little difference was found in their
effectiveness. In Fay's version, patented in 1856, the rods passed beneath the
carriages and the spring application, which offered the important "automatic"
feature of Newall but could act too fiercely, was replaced by a worm and rack for
each brake.

• The chain brake, in which a chain was connected continuously along the bottom of
the train. When pulled tight, it activated a friction clutch that used the rotation of
the wheels to tighten a brake system at that point; this system has severe limitations
in length of train capable of being handled (as braking strength was considerably
weaker after the third car), and of achieving good adjustment (give the slack that
pin couplers required, which a fixed-length chain could not account for). In the
United States, the chain brake was independently developed and patented by
Luscious Stebbins of Hartford, Connecticut in 1848 and by William Loughridge of
Weverton, Maryland in 1855. The British version was known as the Clark and
Webb Brake, after John Clark, who developed it throughout the 1840s, and Francis
William Webb, who perfected it in 1875. The chain brake remained in use until the
1870s in America and 1890s in the UK.

o The Heberlein brake is a notable variation on the chain brake popular in

Germany, using an overhead cable instead of an underlinked chain.

• Hydraulic brakes. As with (passenger) car brakes; actuating pressure to apply

brakes was transmitted hydraulically. These found some favor in the UK (e.g. with
the Midland and Great Eastern Railways), but water was used as the hydraulic fluid
and even in the UK "Freezing possibilities told against the hydraulic brakes, though

7
 the Great Eastern Railway, which used them for a while, overcame this by the use
of salt water"

FIGURE 1.2.1-Rotair Valve Westinghouse Air brake Company[10]

• The simple vacuum system. An ejector on the locomotive created a vacuum in a

continuous pipe along the train, allowing the external air pressure to operate brake
cylinders on every vehicle. This system was very cheap and effective, but it had
the major weakness that it became inoperative if the train became divided or if the
train pipe was ruptured.

• The automatic vacuum brake. This system was similar to the simple vacuum
system, except that the creation of vacuum in the train pipe exhausted vacuum
reservoirs on every vehicle and released the brakes. If the driver applied the brake,
his driver's brake valve admitted atmospheric air to the train pipe, and this
atmospheric pressure applied the brakes against the vacuum in the vacuum
reservoirs. Being an automatic brake, this system applies braking effort if the train
becomes divided or if the train pipe is ruptured. Its disadvantage is that the large

8
 vacuum reservoirs were required on every vehicle, and their bulk and the rather
complex mechanisms were seen as objectionable.

• The Westinghouse air brake system. In this system, air reservoirs are provided on
every vehicle and the locomotive charges the train pipe with a positive air pressure,
which releases the vehicle brakes and charges the air reservoirs on the vehicles. If
the driver applies the brakes, his brake valve releases air from the train pipe, and
triple valves at each vehicle detect the pressure loss and admit air from the air
reservoirs to brake cylinders, applying the brakes. The Westinghouse system uses
smaller air reservoirs and brake cylinders than the corresponding vacuum
equipment, because a moderately high air pressure can be used. However, an air
compressor is required to generate the compressed air and in the earlier days of
railways, this required a large reciprocating steam air compressor, and this was
regarded by many engineers as highly undesirable. A further drawback was the
need to release the brake completely before it could be re-applied—initially there
was no "gradable release" available and numerous accidents occurred while the
brake power was temporarily unavailable.

Later British practice

• In British practice, only passenger trains were fitted with continuous brakes until
about 1930; goods and mineral trains ran at slower speed and relied on the brake
force from the locomotive and tender and the brake van—a heavy vehicle provided
at the rear of the train and occupied by a guard.
• Goods and mineral vehicles had hand brakes which were applied by a hand lever
operated by staff on the ground. These hand brakes were used where necessary
when vehicles were parked but also when trains were descending a steep gradient.
The train stopped at the top of the gradient, and the guard walked forward to "pin
down" the handles of the brakes, so the brakes were partially applied during the
descent. Early goods vehicles had brake handles on one side only but, from about
1930, brake handles were required on both sides of good vehicles. Trains
9
 containing hand-braked vehicles were described as "unfitted": they were in use in
Britain until about 1985. From about 1930, semi-fitted trains were introduced, in
which goods vehicles fitted with continuous brakes were marshalled next to the
locomotive, giving sufficient braking power to run at higher speeds than unfitted
trains. A trial in January 1952 saw a 52-wagon, 850 ton, coal train run 127 miles
(204 km) at an average of 38 miles per hour (61 km/h), compared to the usual
maximum speed on the Midland main line of 25 miles per hour (40 km/h) for
unfitted freight trains. In 1952, 14% of open wagons, 55% of covered wagons and
80% of cattle trucks had vacuum brakes.
• In the early days of diesel locomotives, a purpose-built brake tender was attached
to the locomotive to increase braking effort when hauling unfitted trains. The brake
tender was low, so that the driver could still see the line and signals ahead if the
brake tender was propelled (pushed) ahead of the locomotive, which was often the
case.
• By 1878 there were over 105 patents in various countries for braking systems, most
of which were not widely adopted.

10
 CHAPTER 2

2.1 LITERATURE SURVEY

Transportation is crucial to the development and defense of societies and nations.

This is the reason why many countries are developing unmanned systems such as
unmanned fighter jets to replace piloted fighter jets, robots to replace human soldiers and
autonomous vehicles to transport materials. The tire-road friction coefficient, plays a
significant role in vehicle stability control. With estimated friction coefficients, vehicle
motion can be estimated more accurately. Dieckman (1992) developed a method to
determine the road surface variation based on the measurements of the wheel slip ratio.
Gustafsson (1977) designed an algorithm to estimate the tire-road friction during normal
driving using the measured wheel slip ratio along with Kalman filter. Eichhorn &Roth
(1992) introduced the estimation of road friction using optical and noise sensors near the
front-end of the tire, and stress-strain sensors inside the tire tread. In terms of control,
Hallowell &Ray (2003) proposed a nonlinear estimator and controller to estimate the
vehicle state, and friction coefficient, and implement the stability controller by
distributing driving torques on the wheels. Road surface can be generally classified into
five possible
conditions: Asphalt, Cement, Sand, Grass and rough. Each of these conditions has distinct
characteristics in friction coefficient. There is a relationship between the surface friction
coefficient and the vehicle’s wheel slip ratio. The relationship has been experimentally
determined by Gustafsson (1977).
A model can be designed to estimate the vehicle velocities and yaw rate when
direct measurements are not available, or inaccurate due to signal noise and drift.
However, the existing models are either for linear systems or requiring exact knowledge
of dynamic system model.
The braking system must accomplish three different tasks:
• To stop the vehicle completely; this function entails braking moments that are as
strong as possible on the wheel.

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 • To control speed, when the natural deceleration of the vehicle due to mechanical
friction and motion resistance is not sufficient; this function entails braking
moments on the wheels that are moderate, but applied for a long time.
• To keep the vehicle stopped on a slope.
Because of the nature of these tasks the braking system is one of the safety systems
of the vehicle. As a consequence, the State Authority and, later, the European Union have
introduced regulations that describe design conditions and minimum operational
requirements for this system. Vehicle manufacturers and their component suppliers are,
therefore, responsible for compliance of their products to regulations, including correct
fabrication and system reliability for a reasonable period of time. Users, too, must play
their role because many parts of this system are subject to wear and the safety functions
cannot be assured without the necessary maintenance and replacement of parts. A
periodic compulsory control is addressed to assessing the correct operation of this system.
If regulations determine minimum performance for this system, each manufacturer
considers this only as a starting point, because more stringent requirements are demanded
by the market and can be remarkable selling points. Because of this, braking systems have
reached in normal practice high levels of performance and reliability. It should be
remarked that the relationship between brake reliability and accident probability is not
very evident; statistics on road accidents show, in fact, that less than 2% of road accidents
are caused by inadequate operation of the braking system.
Within this total, 90% of accidents are estimated to be due to insufficient
maintenance and 10% to dynamic instability, consequent to a braking event incompatible
with transverse accelerations. The wide application of anti-lock systems (ABS) represents
an improvement for braking safety, even if accident statistics contain insufficient witness
of this fact.
Studies of accidents in Germany, after the introduction of this system in 1976,
showed a reduction for vehicles equipped with it; most recent data show that the presence
of ABS leads users to overrate its contribution and, therefore, to expose themselves to
dangers, particularly in situations such as icy roads or driving with reduced safety

12
distance. Another German study on taxis show no relevant difference
between cars with and without ABS. Before starting the description of braking system
components, prefer to introduce some preliminary considerations on braking system
design. These will be better explained in the second volume of this book,
which is dedicated to system design. The maximum longitudinal force exchanged with
the ground depends upon many factors, the vertical load on the wheel foremost among
them. This force is influenced by the nature of ground, the speed of the vehicle and the
coexistence of cornering forces. The maximum performance of this system is, therefore,
conditioned by many factors outside the system itself; while the recognition of the latter
is the job of drivers, who are in charge of limiting vehicle speed and controlling the
distance between close vehicles, vertical loads cannot be easily understood.
These are determined by different factors, such as:
• Payload and its distribution in the vehicle
• Road slope
• Longitudinal acceleration, in particular, the same braking acceleration

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 CHAPTER 3

3.1 ELECTRO-PNEUMATIC BRAKES

The electro-pneumatic (EP) brake was introduced in the early years of the 20th
century in an attempt overcome the lag in the operation of the pure air brake. Originally
designed for subways or metros, electro-pneumatic brake systems are now common on
main line passenger railways and on some specialized freight operations. Its main
advantage over the air brake is its speed of control and quick on-vehicle reaction times,
giving instantaneous control of the whole train to the driver. Its speed of operation makes
it ideal for automatic train operation (ATO). EP braking is not the same as ECP
braking. ECP brakes have been introduced recently in an attempt to overcome the
drawbacks of the air brake system on long freight trains.

Figure 3.1.1 EP brake layout

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3.2 BASIC SYSTEM COMPONENTS:

The five main components of an elementary air brake system and their purposes are:

1. Compressor: to build up and maintain air pressure

2. Reservoirs: to store the compressed air
3. Foot valve: to draw compressed air from reservoirs when it is needed for braking
4. Brake chambers: to transfer the force of compressed air to mechanical linkages
5. Brake shoes and drums or brake rotors and pads: to create the friction needed
to stop the vehicle

3.2.1. COMPRESSOR

The function of the air compressor is to build up and maintain air pressure required
to operate air brakes and air-powered accessories.

Air compressors are either gear driven directly from the engine or belt driven.
Although most compressors use the truck’s lubrication and cooling systems, some are
self-lubricated and some are air cooled. Self-lubricated compressors must have their oil
checked and changed at regular intervals.

The compressor’s intake system draws air from either its own air filter or from the
engine’s intake system.

Compressors that have their own filtration system must be serviced on a regular
basis.

All compressors run continuously while the engine is running, but air compression
is controlled and limited by a governor which loads or unloads the compressor. In the
loaded stage, air is pumped into reservoirs. In the unloaded stage (with two cylinder
compressors), the compressor pumps air back and forth between the two cylinders
without supplying the reservoirs.

15
 The governor must take the compressor out of its pumping stage (unload/cut-out)
when system air pressure reaches 120 to 145 psi (828 to 1,000 kPa), and also put it back
into the pumping stage at a minimum of 100 psi (690 kPa).

3.2.2 RESERVOIRS

Reservoirs are pressure-rated tanks, which hold a supply of compressed air until
required for braking or operating auxiliary air systems. They must store a sufficient
volume of air to allow several brake applications if the engine stops or the compressor
fails.

The maximum air pressure available for brake applications depends on how much
air is in the reservoir. A driver is not able to make a higher pressure brake application
than there is air pressure in the reservoir.

Each reservoir is equipped with a drain valve called a drain cock. Fully opening
the drain cock allows reservoirs to be drained of moisture and other contaminants that
build up in the system. All reservoirs must be completely drained once a day when in
use.

The MR pipe feeds air to the following subsystems:

1. Brake system

2. Air suspension equipment

3. Pantograph

4. Pneumatic signaling equipment

5. Automatic couplers

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3.2.3. FOOT VALVE (APPLICATION OR TREADLE VALVE)

This foot-operated valve applies air to operate the brakes. The amount of air
delivered to the brakes is regulated by the driver according to the distance the treadle or
brake pedal is depressed. Releasing it exhausts air in the service breaks through its
exhaust port.

These valves are made in overhead styles with a foot pedal hanging down, or a
floor-mounted version with a foot treadle.

3.2.4. SERVICE-BRAKE CHAMBERS (BRAKE POTS)

Service-brake chambers convert compressed air pressure energy into mechanical

force and movement, which apply the vehicle’s brakes.

When you press down on the foot valve, air pressure enters the pressure side of the
brake chamber through the inlet port and forces against the diaphragm, which moves the
push rod assembly forward. When air pressure is released from the service-brake
chamber, the return spring returns the diaphragm and push rod to their released positions.

3.2.5. BRAKE SHOES AND DRUMS

Front brake assemblies have the brake chamber and slack adjuster mounted on the
backing plate because the steering action of the front axle would otherwise interfere.

The S-cam is rotated so the high points have acted against the cam rollers and
forced the brake shoes against the drum.

When the brakes are released, the brake cam shaft returns the brake cam to the
normal position. The cam rollers roll down into the crook of the S-cam as the brake shoe
return spring pulls the shoes away from the drum.

17
 Brake lining material is attached to the face of the shoes. Lining material is selected
according to the type of service the brakes are subjected to. Linings must give consistent
braking output with minimum fade at high temperatures.

Brake shoes generate heat through friction with the brake drum surface. Drum
thickness determines the amount of heat that can be absorbed and dissipated to the
atmosphere. Thin or distorted drums, weak return springs, improper linings, poor
adjustment, or grease or dirt on the lining, will all result in erratic, unpredictable and
potentially dangerous brake performance.

3.3 PRINCIPLES AND OPERATION OF THE E-P BRAKE

There are many types of e-p brake systems is use today and most of them were
developed as an "add-on" to the original air brake system and, as a result, incorporated
some common principles in their design as follows:

• The e-p brake operates as the service brake while the air brake is retained for
emergency use
• The e-p brake does not compromise the fail-safe or "vital" features of the air brake
• The air brake normally remains in the "Release" position, even while the e-p brake
is in "Application" and the same brake cylinders are used.
• E-P brakes are invariably used on multiple unit passenger trains.
• E-P brakes use a number of train wires to control the electrically operated brake
valves on each car.
• The train wires are connected to a brake "valve" or controller in the driver's cab.

There is a control box on top of the engineer's console. When he wants to apply brakes
the engineer pushes the button until the readout shows the amount of brake cylinder
pressure (or percentage of braking effort) he wants. He releases the button; the control
unit then codes and sends the signal to all cars. They in turn receive and interpret the

18
message. They then begin allowing compressed air from their reservoirs to go to the brake
cylinder until the desired cylinder pressure is achieved.

The microprocessors on the cars will continuously monitor brake cylinder pressure
against leakage and maintain the desired pressure.

If the engineer wants to reduce brake cylinder pressure he simply pushes the release
button until the desired level is indicated, either partial or full release. Again a signal is
coded and transmitted to the cars. The cars in turn do as commanded.

If the engineer asks for only a partial reduction of braking effort, he can increase the
effort again as needed without doing a full release first. The processor on the car is
constantly monitoring brake pipe, reservoir tank and brake cylinder pressures.

When braking commands are not being transmitted, the head end (control) unit is
sending out status messages. The last car in the train (which knows it is last due to the
head end doing a train query and initialization at start-up) will respond to each status
message from the head end.

All cars in the consist will monitor these messages, and if a car fails to receive three
status messages in a row from either the head end or the rear end, it will assume that the
train is broken in two or that the electrical line is broken. It will then initiate an emergency
stop, while trying to tell the other cars and loco that it is doing so.

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3.4 A SIMPLE E-P BRAKE SYSTEM:

Figure 3.4.1-A schematic of the pneumatic layout of a simple e-p brake system.

The standard air brake equipment is retained as the safety system for back-up
purposes. A main reservoir pipe is provided along the length of the train so that a constant
supply of air is available on all cars.
A connection pipe is provided between the main reservoir and the brake cylinders on
each car. An "application valve" in this connection pipe will open when required to allow
main reservoir air into the brake cylinders. Because the brake pipe is fully charged during
an e-p application, the triple valve is in the release position so the brake cylinder is
connected to the exhaust.
For e-p operation, a "holding valve" is added to the triple valve exhaust. When an e-
p application is called for, the holding valve closes and prevents brake cylinder air
escaping through the exhaust.

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3.5 THREE-STEP BRAKE:

Another development for electrical brake control was the 3-step system adopted
on British railway EMU trains in the 1970s. It was based on the West code 7-step brake
system where three steps were taken for service braking use. These were broadly

FIGURE 3.5.3: Schematic of electro-pneumatic brake system without a brake pipe or

triple valve.

described as minimum, normal and full service braking. With the addition of “Release”
and “Emergency” the full range of braking controls were provided. It also eliminated the
need for a brake pipe.

The braking continuity of the train is based on the provision of a “round the train”
wire that is connected to the brake controls to ensure that if the train becomes uncoupled
or any brake control defects occur, the train brakes will automatically apply.

21
3.6 BRAKE BLENDING:

Most trains are now provided with a combination of friction braking and dynamic
braking. The dynamic braking system uses the electric traction motors of the locomotive
or train to provide a braking effort by reversing the electrical connections so that the
motors become generators.

The energy generated by the motors is fed into on-board resistors (regenerative
braking) or back into the electric traction supply system (regenerative braking).

Dynamic braking only operates on wheelsets that have electric motors. Other
wheelsets need to be provided with friction braking and, in case the dynamic braking isn’t
available, the friction brake is provided on motored axles too. The control of the two
brake systems is managed automatically by a brake blending system.

Figure 3.6. 4: Schematic of basic brake control blending system.

The control on each vehicle will include an additional load monitor to adjust the brake according to
the vehicle load.

The brake blending system is set up so that, when the driver (or the ATO system,
if the train is automatically controlled) calls for brake, the dynamic brake is the preferred
option. This is because it can save energy through regeneration and it reduces wear on
brake pads or brake shoes and on discs and wheels.

22
 If the dynamic brake meets the brake demand, the friction brake is held off. If the
dynamic brake effort is unable to meet the demand called for, the friction brake is added
as necessary. The feedback loop that this arrangement incorporates provides a blended
brake application that will always meet the demand.

3.7 PBL90 SYSTEM:

No survey of the electro-pneumatic brake would be complete without a reference

to the European system known as PBL90. This is not a pure e-p brake system as used on
metros and suburban systems but more of an electrically assisted air brake control system.

It is designed to allow vehicles with no electro-pneumatic brake controls to operate

in a train with e-p control available on the locomotive or power car. For a description of
the control system including diagrams.

3.8 POWER SOURCES FOR ECP:

Each car has a rechargeable battery to provide the high power requirements when
solenoids need to be activated. When the high power is not being used, the batteries will
trickle recharge from the communications/power cable.

If the train uses radio communication the batteries will recharge while the car is in
motion via an onboard generator creating power from the motion of the car, either an axle
generator, or natural frequency vibration generator or some other type of device.

The hardwired system uses roughly 25% of its signal capacity for brake commands
and status messages. Distributed power, controlled via the same cable uses another 10-
15%, leaving 60-65% of the signal capacity for special monitors on the car, such as
bearing sensors, temperature sensors for reefers on tankers, pressure sensors for tankers,
etc.

23
3.9 ELECTRO-PNEUMATIC BRAKE CONTROL:
Electro-Pneumatic brakes are controlled by the driver's brake valve handle. It is
usually the same handle used to control the air brake. Electrical contacts are provided so
that selection of a position will energize the train wires required to operate the e-p valves
on each car (Figure 2). Current to operate the brake control is supplied from a battery
through a control switch, which is closed in the operative cab.

Figure 3.9.2: Schematic for EP brake control.

. In the release position, all contacts are open and the e-p valves on each car are de-
energized. In the "Application" position, the holding and application wires are energized
and both valves will be energized on each car to cause the brakes to apply. Note that the
contact for the holding wire is arranged to close first so that no air will escape when the
application valve is opened. In the "Holding" position, only the holding wire is
energized. In effect, the driver can add or subtract air at will and can obtain an infinite
variety of braking rates according to the requirements of each stop.

24
3.10 BRAKE CYLINDER PRESSURE

It is essential to ensure that, during braking, the train wheels do not skid. Skidding
reduces the braking capability and it damages wheels and rails. Wheels involved in a skid
will often develop "flats", a small flat patch on the tyre which can normally only be
removed by re-profiling the wheel in a workshop. To reduce the risk of skidding, brake
cylinder pressure must be restricted. In a pure air brake system, a natural restriction is
imposed by the maximum allowed brake pipe pressure and in the proportion of volume
between the auxiliary reservoir and the brake cylinder. In an EP equipped train, the main
reservoir supply may not restrict, so it would be possible to go on pumping air into the
brake cylinder until it burst. Of course, this will not happen because the brake cylinder is
fitted with a safety valve (not shown in the diagram) set at the maximum pressure
normally obtained in full braking.

25
 CHAPTER-4
4.1 ELECTRO PNEUMATIC VARIATIONS

There have been a number of developments of the e-p braking system over the
years, including a common addition - the "Self Lapping" brake. There have also been
"retardation controllers" and, more recently, variable load control and single wire or P-
wire control.

4.1.1 SELF-LAPPING BRAKES:

A "self-lapping" brake is really a brake controller (brake stand or brake valve, call
it what you will) in the driver's cab, where the position of the brake handle between
"Release" and Application" corresponds to the brake rate achieved by the equipment -
in theory at least. This is similar in principle to the self-lapping control valves fitted to
some air braked locomotives. A number of different systems have been adopted,
including one which uses a pressure sensitive valve detecting brake cylinder pressure
and comparing it with the position of the brake handle. When the pressure corresponds
to the position of the brake handle, the application electrical connection is opened to
keep the brake cylinder pressure at that level.

Another version was developed, using a mercury filled tube inside the brake
controller. The mercury was used to conduct the control current to the application and
holding wires. The shape of the tube was oval and it was aligned "forward and aft" so
it allowed the mercury to flow forward if the train started braking. When "Application"
was called for, the movement of the brake handle towards full application tilted the
mercury tube backwards and caused the holding and application valves to be
energized. As the train brakes applied, the mercury detected the slowing of the train
and it ran forward in the tube. This had the effect of cutting off the application so that
the rate of braking conformed to the angle of the tube set by the driver's movement of
his brake handle.

26
 4.1.2 RETARDATION CONTROLLER:

The mercury brake controller was an adaption of a device introduced to London

Underground in the mid-1930s called the "mercury retarder" or "retardation controller".

The mercury retarder is a dynamic switch set into the E P brake application circuit,
comprising a glass tube filled with mercury. It is mounted parallel to the motion of the
train so that the mercury fluid reacts to the train's braking. The tube is curved so that the
electrical contact at the base is always covered with mercury but a second contact, set
higher up the rear of the tube, becomes exposed when the mercury runs forward during
braking. It has the effect of measuring the deceleration rate. It cuts off application at a
preset level, no matter how much more the driver tries to put into the brake cylinders. Its
main purpose was to reduce flatted wheels. It also acted as a crude form of load
compensation.

In the London Underground version, two retarders were provided and they were
stationary, being fixed in the driving car. They were used to regulate the rate of braking
at the full application end of the range, primarily to reduce skidding and the dreaded
"flats" on wheels. One retarder limited the application while the second was used to
reduce the brake cylinder pressure by releasing some air through a special "blow down"
valve.

Retardation controllers were later used to control braking rates on the world's first
ATO railway, the Victoria Line. Four were used in all, each being set at a different angle
and selected as necessary to give the required braking rate. They were also used by
British Rail as self-lapping brake controllers provided on the EMU stocks built in the
1960s and 70s.

4.1.3 VARIABLE LOAD CONTROL:

Although the retardation controller is a form of load control - because the braking
rate is monitored, a heavier train will require more brake cylinder pressure, so the retarder
27
will not reach its setting until the right rate is reached - it is rather crude. It only monitors
the whole train, not individual cars. This means that lightly loaded cars in a generally
heavy train are still at risk from a skid or wheel slide, as it is called. The solution is in
variable load control. The car weight is monitored, usually by a lever fitted between the
car and the bogie, which detects the bogie spring depression as weight increases. The
lever is connected to a regulating valve in the brake cylinder feed pipe, so that the brake
cylinder pressure is varied in relation to the weight of the car. With the introduction of
air suspension, load control is achieved by monitoring the level of air in the suspension
system and regulating brake cylinder pressure accordingly. Nowadays, the same load
signals are used to vary acceleration and dynamic braking according to car weight.

4.1.4 P-Wire Control:

As train control systems grew more complicated, more train wires were required
and the traditional 10-wire jumper used by so many railways grew to the 27-wire or 40-
wire jumper often seen today. In an attempt to reduce wiring, a novel form of e-p brake
control appeared in the 1970s called the P-wire system. The brake rate was controlled by
a single wire carrying pulses of different lengths to correspond to different brake rates.
The pulse width was modulated to correspond to the brake demand required and it became
known as the PWM (Pulse Width Modulation) system or P-wire, for short. The system
was "fail-safe" in that no pulse activated the full brake while a continuous pulse kept the
brake released.

28
4.2 BRAKING PERFORMANCE:

Many people believe that the railway train is the vehicle of the future, a paradigm
of advanced technology capable of much higher speeds than the most expensive supercar.
Yet trains don’t stop very quickly. The deceleration rate is normally less than 0.1g,
compared with 0.5g for a passenger car. `

There are three reasons for this, none of which have anything to do with the quality
of the brakes as such.

• The first is that railway passengers expect to move about inside the train
without being disturbed by inertial forces, and a passenger who falls over
could well be injured.
• The second reason is that the coefficient of friction between the wheel and
the rail is relatively small, and the driver must allow for unexpected
variations owing to moisture or detritus on the rail surface.
• The third concerns heat dissipation, an issue to which we’ll return later.

4.3 BRAKING DISTANCE

On modern railways the limit for deceleration in normal operation - known as

‘service braking’ - is set at a modest level, between 0.5 and 1.3 m/s2, equivalent to 0.05g
to 0.13g (the figure used for the first generation of high-speed trains in the UK was 0.09g).
Emergency braking is a different matter.

If something unexpected happens the driver must attempt the highest possible rate
of deceleration using all the frictional resistance that can be extracted from the braking
system and the track. But the value will depend on the state of the rail surface and
therefore weather plays an important part, as does the vehicle speed.

Earlier in Section G0816, in order to make a comparison of emergency braking

with other modes we assumed a value of 0.2g, about twice the value for service braking.

29
 While the rate of deceleration is important from the passenger’s point of view, what
matters to the railway operations manager is the distance required to stop. One can
visualize the stopping distance as made up of two components.

The first arises from the delay while the driver makes the decision to brake and
moves the brake handle, plus the time required for the braking action to take full effect.
The second is distance required to come to a halt under full braking. Since it accounts for
much the greater proportion of the total, in what follows we’ll concentrate on the second
component and refer to it as the braking distance. Let’s call it s.

To work out the braking distance for any vehicle it’s convenient to assume that the
rate of acceleration a is constant throughout (note that since the train is slowing down the
value of a will be negative). We can then use the well-known ‘constant acceleration
formula’ in which u represents the initial speed, v the final speed, and x the distance
travelled:

V2=u2+2ax --------- (1)

If we put x=s and v=0 in equation 1 and re-arrange it we get:

S=-u2/2a -----------(2)

The formula tells us that assuming the rate of deceleration is held constant at 0.09g,
when braking from 100 km/h, a train will need nearly half a kilometer to stop. And if the
speed doubles to 200 km/h the stopping distance will increase by a factor of four, to nearly
2 kilometers.

4.4 EMPIRICAL FORMULAE

So what happens in practice? Many railway operators use formulae inherited from
the period before high-speed trains came into being, most of which assume a constant

30
rate of deceleration so that the braking distance is proportional to the square of the speed
as specified in equation 2. Some examples are described briefly in.

But the formulae take into account other factors that we haven’t so far mentioned,
including
(a) the gradient and
(b) the braked weight percentage λ.

The latter calls for some explanation. Using a standard set of 15 passenger
coaches, in 1938 the French railway engineer Pedeluc carried out a series of experiments
to measure the braking distances required to halt the train from various initial speeds
under emergency braking.

He then disconnected the brakes on some of the coaches and repeated the
experiment, thereby simulating the performance of a train whose brakes were less
effective than those of the standard train. In each case the reduced braking effort was
characterized in terms of λ, defined as the proportion of the total train mass supported on
braked axles. For example, if in a particular test the brakes were working on only half the
coaches, the value of λ was recorded as 0.5.

Figure 4.4.6- The braked weight percentage concept

31
 The resulting braking distances were plotted on log-log paper to yield curves of
braking distance against braked weight percentage, each curve corresponding to a
different initial speed, as shown diagrammatically in figure 6. The graphs could then be
used to characterize the braking performance of any given train in terms of the braked
weight percentage alone. This was done by measuring the braking distance for that train
at a particular speed and reading λ off the graph for the speed at which the measurement
was made.

This was a very convenient method for representing the whole gamut of braking
performance for any chosen train in terms of a single number, and it is still used today
not least because it simplifies harmonization of railway operation across national borders
within Europe.

However, it relies on the assumption that the braking distance for all trains varies
with speed in the same way, in other words, the profile has the same shape apart from a
scaling factor that is unique to each vehicle type. If we label the trains i =1,2, 3,
mathematically, this condition can be expressed as

Si(u) = ki f(u) ----------(3)

where the scaling factor ki may vary from train to train but is independent of initial
speed, and the function f(u) is the same for all trains. In the 1930s, this condition was met
by virtue of the cast iron shoe brakes in use at the time, which generated a frictional
resistance that did not vary significantly with vehicle speed. Hence during any given test
the acceleration was constant throughout the braking sequence, the braking distance was
proportional to u2, and equation 3 was satisfied.

As we shall see shortly, however, the situation is different for high-speed trains,
inasmuch as the deceleration rate is far from constant. This does not necessarily rule out
the possibility of using the braked weight percentage to characterise braking performance

32
because in theory, equation 3 might still hold. But even if this were the case, the value of
λ on its own conveys limited information.

It tells you the overall braking distance, but says little about what happens during
the process. In principle, a driver could adopt one of any number of strategies in which
the intensity of braking varies from moment to moment until the train stops. The braking
pattern is usually portrayed in the form of a graph, a plot of speed against distance
travelled, known as a braking curve. Let’s look at two simple models.

4.5 TWO THEORETICAL BRAKING CURVES:

For each of the two models we’ll consider how the distance travelled x, the
instantaneous speed v, the acceleration an and the rate of energy dissipation vary
throughout the braking sequence. The braking process starts at time t=0. Distance x is
measured along the track from the point where the braking process starts, and the braking
sequence ends when the train comes to a halt at x=s.

The calculations are set out in Appendix 2 at the end of this Section. To simplify
comparisons between the models, the quantities concerned will be plotted as
dimensionless variables defined as shown in table 2.

Table 2- Dimensionless variables that characterize the braking profile

33
 In the first model we assume a constant rate of acceleration a=ac throughout, so
that A=1.0. This implies a constant retarding force and therefore the minimum friction
coefficient required between the wheels and the rails is constant too.

The dimensionless distance X is plotted against dimensionless time as the black

curve in figure 7. Dimensionless speed and dimensionless acceleration are plotted against
X as black lines respectively in Figures figure 8 and figure 9. As shown in Appendix 2, it
turns out that the train dissipates equal amounts of kinetic energy for equal increments of
distance travelled, so that if it is all converted into heat, the heat load is distributed evenly
into the surrounding air at different points along the track. This might be important in the
close confines of a railway tunnel.

Figure 4.5.7- Profile of distance against time for two braking strategies

34
 Figure 4.5.8- Profile of speed against distance for two braking strategies

Figure 4.5.9- Profile of acceleration against distance for two braking strategies

35
 In the second model the rate of acceleration is not constant, but controlled in such
a way that the train’s kinetic energy is dissipated at a constant rate over time: equal
amounts of heat are generated in equal time intervals.

We stipulate that the braking distance s is the same as before. The results are set
out in Appendix 2, and they show that the train stops at an earlier time than it would do
under the constant acceleration model. Profiles of the dimensionless distance, speed, and
acceleration appear as red lines in the accompanying Figures.

Figure 7 confirms that the train stops earlier, in just three-quarters of the time taken
in the constant acceleration case. But the speed is greater throughout (figure 8), and the
train slows more abruptly towards the end of the braking sequence. In fact the
acceleration approaches minus infinity as the train comes to a halt (figure 9).

Therefore, at some point, the braking force demanded between the wheels and the
rail must be greater than the available friction, the wheels will lock, and the train will
overrun the stipulated braking distance. In order to work satisfactorily, the constant
dissipation model would need to be modified with a reduced intensity of braking during
the later stages that takes into account the friction constraint.

But these two models are not the only possibilities. They both entail sudden
changes in acceleration - infinite ‘spikes’ in the jerk profile - that are undesirable from
the passengers’ point of view (you’ll recall that jerk is a technical term for the rate of
change of acceleration: see Section G0216).

In theory, we could minimize disturbance to passengers by dividing the braking

sequence into two equal time intervals in which the jerk level is maintained at a steady
constant negative level in the first interval and a steady positive level in the second. Hence
the acceleration intensifies linearly from zero to a (negative) peak, and then declines

36
linearly again to zero at the moment the train stops. Unfortunately, this ‘passenger-
friendly’ model has the effect of increasing the braking distance.

If we stipulate for example that the acceleration peaks at the same value an as in
the constant acceleration case, it’s possible to show that the braking distance is doubled,
but we haven’t given the derivation here.

4.6 HIGH SPEED TRAINS

The constant acceleration model is often used in text books as a basis for
understanding what is required from a braking system and how it performs. In the case
of an emergency stop, this is not unreasonable.

Figure 4.6.10- Alternative braking profile

37
 If you want to halt a train in the shortest possible distance, then the limiting factor
is the friction between wheel and the rail. Assuming that the brakes are sufficiently
powerful to use all the available grip, and the coefficient of friction is constant throughout
the braking process, then a constant (negative) acceleration is the most effective strategy.

In practice, however, the friction is not constant, but falls appreciably at high
speeds, so in order to avoid locking the wheels and damaging the tread and rail surface,
the braking effort must start at a somewhat lower level and build up to a maximum later
on as shown in the upper part of figure 10.

Figure 4.6.11-Braking curve for a high-speed train

And as we have seen, for an ordinary service braking scenario, there are other
factors to be taken into account, in particular, passenger comfort and energy dissipation.
To avoid disturbing passengers with a ‘spike’ in the jerk level, rather than starting with a
sudden application of braking effort, we want to build up to the required intensity over a
finite time period. Similarly, we want the brakes to be released gradually to avoid a spike
38
just as the train comes to a halt (an experienced car driver will do this instinctively,
although a gradual release is harder to achieve than a gradual application).

The designer of a high-speed train must also decide how to manage the heat
dissipation process. With any braking system, there is a limit to the rate at which heat can
be removed from the braking apparatus and conveyed to the surrounding atmosphere, and
the intensity of braking must be regulated so that surface temperatures and the rate of heat
flow lie within the range that the materials can handle.

With the constant acceleration model, the rate of heat dissipation is not constant
over time: as shown in Appendix 2, it peaks at the beginning of the braking sequence and
falls linearly until the train stops. The uneven heat load can cause serious problems for
disk pads, and consequently, high-speed trains usually have two separate braking
systems.

Initially, a rheostat brake carries most of the burden, dissipating heat from the roof-
mounted resistors, and because of the reduced wheel grip the rate of deceleration is
comparatively modest. The disk brakes take over when the speed has fallen to a
comparatively low level (figure 11). They are both controlled by a microprocessor that
continually assesses the braking distance required given the vehicle’s location and speed,
and works out a sequence in which the two types of brake are brought into action.

The result is that the overall braking distance s is no longer proportional to the
square of the initial speed and in fact increases more rapidly than u2. Travelling at 350
km/h, a high-speed train today will need several kilometers to stop.

4.7 CALCULATION OF TRAIN STOPPING DISTANCE

For trains to safely travel on a railway, trains must be provided with sufficient
distance in which to stop. Allowing too long a distance reduces the capacity of the line
and has an impact on rail infrastructure investment.

39
 Too short a distance and collisions would occur, because the train would not be
able to stop within the available distance and would therefore occupy a section of track
that could be allocated to another train. Consequently, it is important that distance be
adequate. Train breaking distance is function of following factors

• Train speed when the brakes are applied.

• The available friction at wheel-rail surface which influences the retardation

rate for complete brake application.

• Time from when the brakes are applied by the train driver to when they are
actually become effective i.e. brake delay time.

• The magnitude of wear of brake pads and the pressure available in brake
cylinders.

• Track gradient when brakes are applied and mass distribution of track.

In order to stop the train, it requires the work. The required work is the sum of
change in the train’s kinetic energy and the change in its potential energy due to change
in the height due to the gradient of the track.

4.8 E. P BRAKE FAILURES:

1. Check the MCB for E.P Brake; E.P Auto Switch; E.P Supply switch is in ‘ON’
position.
2. If found ‘OFF’ put it to ‘ON’.
3. Ensure BIV is in turn ‘ON’ position.
4. Re-check for the proper working of E.P. Brake.
5. Replace EP unit with overhauled one.

40
 NATURE OF FAILURE CAUSE OF FAILURE REMEDIAL ACTION

Brake binding in particular EP Brake binding due to Stop the train at the
coach in the formation EP valves malfunction in convenient place (clear of
the particular coach platform) to examine the
defective coach

Unit will not move when Auto Brake binding due Protect the train from
MP kept in shunt position to Triple valve defective rolling (wedge)
or very hard to move. in particular coach

Smoke emission or smell Bring the Brake controller

reported by passengers in handle to Release and
the defective coach Running position

4.9 TRAIN BRAKING PHASES:

After a braking action command, speed begins to decrease due to the kinetic and
potential energy dissipation mainly through the heat developed by the action of braking
systems and through the work of the resistance forces that each vehicle and, accordingly,
the whole train, are submitted to. These processes develop with different intensities in
various places of the train assembly. So, in the case of a train equipped with standard
pneumatic brake system:
• along the train, the effective action of the brakes begins successively, according
to the length of the train and depending on the braking propagation rate wave, etc.
• at each vehicle, the braking forces increase up to the commanded value is time
dependent, according to the filling characteristics specific to the brake and air
distributor constructive and functional types;
• the train’s vehicles can be equipped with various types of braking systems;

41
 • usually, trains are composed with different types of vehicles and consequently the
resistance forces differ, while the wheelsets and masses are not uniformly disposed
along the train;
• vehicles may have various masses and loads and, depending on the type of brake
devices that are fitted (basic, step-adjusting or self-adjusting load-proportional
braking systems), braking forces will develop in different manners, finally being
more or less adapted to the total weight of the vehicle;
• if for certain reason there are vehicles with inactive brakes, then even more the
braked wheelsets are unevenly placed in the train body, etc.

FIGURE:4.9.1 PHASES OF BRAKE SYSTEM

The first phase is considered between the moment of commanding the brake
action until the brake propagation ratio attains the last air distributor of the train. During
that phase, the brakes begin to come into action successively along the train, which is
submitted to a compression becoming maximum at the end of first phase, corresponding
to the brake cylinder difference of pressures between the first and the last vehicle of the
train (proportional to segments ab for passenger train equipped with fast-acting brakes,
a’b’ for freight train equipped with slow-acting brakes).

42
 The second phase is considered between the end of the previous one until in the
brake cylinders of the first vehicle in train the maximum air pressure commanded is
attained. During this time, pressure continues to increase uniformly in all the brake
cylinders, maintaining a decreasing pressure distribution along the train, that remains
consequently compressed, the compression level being similarly proportional to
segments cd and c’d’ respectively. Moreover, under the assumed simplifying hypothesis,
at the end of the first phase there are created all necessary condition to initiate an
oscillatory motion, due to inertial in excess forces in the second half of the train, which
propagates along, pushing alternatively the vehicles from the front and the end of the
train. The oscillatory motion, which overlaps on the existent compression of the train, is
damped according to the damping coefficient of the buffers and traction gears.
The third phase lasts from the end of the second one until the maximum pressure
is established in the brake cylinders of the last vehicle of the train. During this phase the
maximum pressure is achieved successively in the brake cylinders along the train. As a
result of successive braking forces equalization, the potential energy accumulated in the
elastic elements of the buffers during the previous phases compressions is rendered to the
system. Consequently, it develops a “rebound” in succession along the train, its intensity
depending on the damping characteristics of the shock apparatuses.
The fourth phase is considered between the end of the previous one until the train
stops or a brake release command is performed. Because during that phase the maximum
pressure already existent in all brake cylinders is maintained, braking forces remain
constantly to their maximum values along the train, so the deformations stop and train
length remain from now on unchanged. It is to notice that even under the simplifying
assumptions, the mechanical response of the train is extremely complex, the length of the
train continuously modifies during the first braking phases and the overlap of oscillatory
motion propagation determines the development of important compression and traction
in-train forces. Incidents such as broken couplers during braking actions, observed mainly
in the case of long, heavy freight trains submitted to braking actions, constituted the
evidence of practice.

43
4.10 MANUFACTURER SYSTEMS:

TSM, which was a subsidiary of Rockwell International, developed the first

working ECP brake units. They are now owned by WABCO. In addition, Westinghouse
Air Brake, New York Air Brake (a subsidiary of Knorr Corp.), GE/Harris and a small
company called Zeftron, are developing ECP units.

TSM's first units worked in an "overlay" mode, where a module was placed
between the air pilots and the actual valves, so that the system could work both ways.
Zeftron started out working on an "emulator" brake valve, which totally eliminates the
air pilots. The system, which must always be powered, looks for ECP commands. If it
finds none, it monitors brake pipe pressure and behaves just like a standard air brake. If
ECP command signals are present, the units behave like an ECP brake.

Because of the sequential operations of standard brakes, there is a flow control

which limits how fast the air can flow into the brake cylinder. On ECP systems, because
there is instantaneous reaction from all cars at once, these flow controls are not used. The
lack of sequential activation and flow controls combined is what makes ECP brakes so
responsive.

TSM is now introducing an emulator system. This enables cars fitted with it to
work in ECP trains and non-ECP trains. New York Air Brake has a system available for
sale in the very near future. Westinghouse Air Brake is playing it cool, waiting for all of
the specs to be written and all of the bugs worked out before they commit to anything.

4.11 ADVANTAGES OF EP SYSTEM:

The advantages of the EP system are that:

• The driver's brake valve is self-lapping; the position of the valve activates a specific
brake pressure in the brake cylinders and therefore a specific braking rate.

44
 • The distributors are activated instantly and simultaneously, so that there is no
longitudinal surging and the response is consistent irrespective of train length.
• Release of a brake application starts instantly in response to the driver's brake
valve, throughout the train; and partial release and re-application is possible.

4.12 BENEFITS:

Some of the benefits of ECP braking have already been mentioned; instantaneous
response to the engineer's commands on all vehicles, graduated release of brakes and
continuous replenishment of reservoirs. But there are other and more significant benefits
for the industry as a whole.

With the new responsiveness of ECP braking, braking distances will be reduced.
A range of 30 - 70% reduction has been quoted. This will allow shorter stopping distances
and will, in turn, allow higher speeds. The improved train handling will reduce slack
action, breakaways and derailments and will lead to a reduction in draft gear maintenance.

There may be a price to pay. Although the current view is that brake shoe and
wheel wear will be reduced, it is easy to see that engineers will develop their handling
skills with the new system and this will lead to higher speeds needing more and heavier
brake applications. A wise railway management will recognize this and will review its
speed limit zones to ensure the maximum benefits are obtained without excessive brake
usage.

4.13 DEVELOPMENTS:

There was much discussion amongst experts regarding the need for an end-of-train
(EOT) device or letting the last car act as the end-of-train beacon. It seems that the last
word on EOT beacons was that there will be one!

There are committees that are developing specs right now to permit the addition of
monitors onto cars. The monitors will have their own microprocessors and will only send

45
a signal to the head end when something on the car is going out of specified limits. This
keeps the communications line open for brake commands, loco commands, and
emergency messages.

A further development will be the use of the electronic train line for diagnostics,
where the head end position can be informed of hot boxes, car load temperatures, tanker
pressures, wagon doors not closed, parking brake off/on and the like.

4.14 ECP RECORD:

There was a record-breaking, 600 km round trip by a train fitted with ECP braking
in Australia. On 28 June 1999, a train comprising 240 wagons, five GE Dash 8 diesel-
electric locomotives and weighing 37,500 tons was equipped with the GE Harris EPx
radio-based, electronic brake control system. It was the longest and heaviest train ever
to be fitted with an ECP brake system. The locomotives were fitted with the same
company's remote locomotive control system. The train operated over the BHP Iron Ore
line between Port Headland and Yandi Mine.

46
 5. CONCLUSION

Air brakes are efficient as compared to vacuum brakes; however, they require
considerable stopping distance therefore cannot be used for emergency braking.
But this problem can be overcome by the use of electro pneumatic braking system.
With the new responsiveness of Electro pneumatic braking, braking distances will be
reduced. A range of 30 - 70% reduction has been quoted. This will allow shorter stopping
distances and will, in turn, allow higher speeds.

• The distributors are activated instantly and simultaneously, so that there is no

longitudinal surging and the response is consistent irrespective of train length.
• Release of a brake application starts instantly in response to the driver's brake
valve, throughout the train; and partial release and re-application is possible.

47
 6.REFERENCES:

1) Google search engine

2) Railway technical website

3) iitkgp.ac.in

4)indianrailways.gov.in

5)rcil.gov.in

6) International Journal of Engineering Research & Technology

7)railway technology today 7 (edited by kanji wako)

8) Sitema manufacturers manual

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