UNIVERSITI TEKNOLOGI MARA

FAKULTI KEJURUTERAAN KIMIA

ENGINEERING CHEMISTRY LAB (CHE485)

STUDENT NAME : MUHAMMAD AZRIN BIN SAUMI

STUDENT ID : 2011281646
GROUP : EH2202B
EXPERIMENT : FILM BOILING CONDENSATION
DATE PERFORMED : 4 APRIL 2012
SEMESTER :2
PROGRAMME/CODE : CHEMICAL ENGINEERING / EH220
SUBMIT TO : PUAN SITI NORAZIAN ISMAIL

No
Title Allocated Marks (%) Marks
.
1 Abstract/Summary 5  
2 Introduction 5  
3 Aims 5  
4 Theory 5  
5 Apparatus 5  
6 Methodology/Procedure 10  
7 Results 10  
8 Calculations 10  
9 Discussion 20  
10 Conclusion 10  
11 Recommendations 5  
12 Reference 5  
13 Appendix 5  
TOTAL MARKS 100  

Remarks:

Checked by :

---------------------------
Date :

Table of Contents
1
ABSTRACT..............................................................................................................................................3
INTRODUCTION.....................................................................................................................................4
OBJECTIVES............................................................................................................................................4
THEORY..................................................................................................................................................5
APPARATUS...........................................................................................................................................7
PROCEDURES.........................................................................................................................................8
EXPERIMENT 1: DEMONSTRATION OF FILMWISE AND DROPWISE CONDENSATION........................8
EXPERIMENT 2: THE FILMWISE HEAT FLUX AND SURFACE HEAT TRANSFER COEFFICIENT
DETERMINATION AT CONSTANT PRESSURE......................................................................................8
EXPERIMENT 3: THE DROPWISE HEAT FLUX AND SURFACE HEAT TRANSFER COEFFICIENT
DETERMINATION AT CONSTANT PRESSURE......................................................................................9
EXPERIMENT 4: THE EFFECT OF AIR INSIDE THE CHAMBER...............................................................9
RESULTS AND CALCULATIONS.............................................................................................................10
DISCUSSION.........................................................................................................................................20
CONCLUSION.......................................................................................................................................21
RECOMMENDATION............................................................................................................................22
REFERENCES........................................................................................................................................22
APPENDICES.........................................................................................................................................23

2
ABSTRACT

This Film and Dropwise Condensation Unit are designed to demonstrate and observe the
principal of heat transfer during condensation. In this experiment, we are attempting to
demonstrate the filmwise and dropwise condensation. Filmwise condensation produce a
continuous film of liquid on the surface while dropwise produce drops of liquid form from a
vapour. We also need to find heat flux and the surface heat transfer coefficient. We need to
compare this value for dropwise and filmwise. Dropwise has a very high heat transfer
coefficient compared to filmwise condensation. From the graph 5 and 6, we can see clearly
that heat fluxes and surface heat transfer coefficient of dropwise condensation is higher than
filmwise condensation. Also, from graph 7, we can see that with the presence of air in the
condenser will lowered the value of heat flux and surface heat transfer coefficient. So,
condenser without presence of air will have a higher efficiency than condenser with the
presence of air.

3
INTRODUCTION

The use of steam both for power production to convey heat has a long history and its
use in these fields is likely to continue into the foreseeable future.

In all applications, the steam must be condensed as it transfers heat to a cooling

medium which could be cold water in a condenser of generating station, hot water in a
heating calorifier, sugar solution in a sugar refinery and etc. During condensation, very high
heat fluxes are possible and provided that the heat can be quickly transferred from the
condensing surface into the cooling medium, the heat exchangers can be compact and
effective.

Steam may condense onto a surface in two distinct modes, known as the
DropwiseanaFilmwise condensation. Dropwise condensation is several times more effective
than filmwise, for the same temperature difference between the steam and the surface, and for
this reason the former is desirable although in practical plants, it seldom occurs for prolonged
periods.

The SOLTEQ Film &Dropwise Condensation Unit (Model: HE163) is designed to

help student to understand several ley aspects in condensation topic, in particular the process
of filmwise and dropwise condensation. It allows students to visualize both phenomena and
perform a few experiments to demonstrate both concepts.

OBJECTIVES

1. To demonstrate the filmwise and dropwise condensation

2. To determine the filmwise heat flux and surface heat transfer coefficient at constant
pressure
3. To determine the dropwise heat flux and surface heat transfer coefficient at constant
pressure.
4. To demonstrate the effect of air on heat transfer coefficient of condensation.

4
THEORY
Mechanism of Condensation

Condensation is a heat transfer process which a saturated vapour is converted into a

liquid by means of removing latent heat of condensation. From thermodynamics point,
condensation occurs when enthalpy of vapour reduced to state of saturated liquid.
Condensation occurs when vapours contact a solid surface or fluid interface where the
temperature is below saturated temperature of vapour.

Condensation of a vapour to a liquid and vaporization of a liquid to a vapour both

involves a change of phase of a fluid with large heat transfer coefficients. Condensation
occurs when a saturated vapour such as steam comes in contact with a solid whose surface
temperature is below the saturation temperature, to form a liquid such as water.

Normally, when a vapour condenses on a surface such as vertical or horizontal tube or other
surface, a film of condensate is formed on the surface and flows over the surface by the
action of gravity. It is this film of liquid between the surface and the vapour that forms the
main resistance to a heat transfer. This is called filmwise condensation.

Another type of condensation, dropwise condensation, can occur, where small drops are
formed on the surface. These drops grow and coalesce, and the liquid flows from the surface.
During this condensation, large areas of tube are devoid of any liquid and are exposed
directly to the vapour. Very high rates of heat transfer occur on these bare areas. The average
heat transfer coefficient for dropwise condensation is five to 10 times larger than the filmwise
coefficients.

Dropwise condensation can be promoted by making the surface non-wetting(via coating).

However, dropwise condensation is difficult to maintain in industrial applications due to
oxidation, fouling and degradation of coating, and eventually film condensation occurs.
Therefore, condenser designs are often based on the assumption of filmwise condensation.

5
Calculation to calculate heat flux and surface heat transfer coefficient.

1. Rate of heat transfer, q (W)

q=ṁ C p (T out −T ¿ )

C p .water =4.18 J /kg ∙ K

2. Heat flux, ∅ (W/m2)

q
∅=
A

Area=πDL
D = Diameter = 12.7 mm = 0.0127m
L = Length= 120 mm = 0.12m

A=π ( 0.0127 m ) ( 0.12 m ) =4.79 ×10−3 m 2

3. Heat Transfer Coefficient , U (W/m2∙K)

∅
U=
∆T lm

( T sat −T ¿ )−(T sat −T out )

∆ T lm=
ln ¿ ¿

6
APPARATUS
1. Film & Drop-wise Condensation Unit (SOLTEQ Model: HE163)

 Steam chamber: Borosilicate thick-walled glass cylinder with flanged ends and covers
 Capacity: approximately 0.5 - 1 Kg. of distilled water.
 Condenser
o 2 water cooled condensers fabricated from copper and brass, mounted in the
upper cylinder cover.
o Diameter: 12.7 mm. Length: 120 mm.
o Material : Gold-plated (dropwise condenser)
Natural finish (filmwise condenser)
 Electric heating element:Coiled heater with thermal protection. (Power = 3 kW)
 Air extraction system: Composed by air cooler, separator and water jet vacuum
pumpwith the necessary valves V1 to V6.
 Pressure sensor: To measure the chamber pressure.
 Flow meters: To measure the water flow rate through the condensers.
 Dropwise Condenser: 0.4 to 4.0LPM
 Filmwise Condenser: 0.1 to 1.0LPM
 Pressure switch to turn off the heater when chamber pressure exceeds 1.20 abs bar

7
  Pressure relief valve to discharge at 1.50 abs bar.

PROCEDURES
EXPERIMENT 1: DEMONSTRATION OF FILMWISE AND DROPWISE
CONDENSATION

1. The main switch was ensured to be in the off position.

2. The power regulatory knobs were turned fully anti-clockwise to set the power to
minimum.
3. Valves 1 to 6 was checked to ensure all are closed.
4. The chamber was filled with distilled water until the water level stays between the
heater and baffle plates. The heater was ensured that it was always fully immersed in
the water throughout the experiment. Valve V6 was opened for water to be filled into
the chamber. Valve V6 was closed after chamber was filled with distilled water.
5. The main switch and heater switch was turned on. The heater power was set by
rotating the power regulatory knobs clockwise to increase the heating power.
6. The water temperature reading was observed. The temperature reading increased
when the water starts to heat-up.
7. The water was heated to boiling point until the pressure reaches 1.02-1.10 bar. Valve
V1 was opened immediately followed by valve V5 for 1 minute to vacuum out the air
inside the condenser. Then, both valves V1 and V5 were closed.
8. The system was stabilized.
9. The characteristics of filmwise and dropwise condensation were observed.
10. All data were recorded.

EXPERIMENT 2: THE FILMWISE HEAT FLUX AND SURFACE HEAT TRANSFER

COEFFICIENT DETERMINATION AT CONSTANT PRESSURE.

1. The cooling water was circulated through the filmwise condenser starting with a
minimum value of 0.1LPM.
2. The heater power was adjusted to obtain the desired pressure at 1.01bar.
3. When the condition was stabilized, the steam(Tsat) and surface temperature for
filmwise(Tsurf), Tin(T1) and Tout(T2), and flowrate was recorded in the table.

8
EXPERIMENT 3: THE DROPWISE HEAT FLUX AND SURFACE HEAT
TRANSFER COEFFICIENT DETERMINATION AT CONSTANT PRESSURE.

1. Cooling water was circulated through the dropwise condenser starting with a
minimum value of 0.4LPM.
2. The heater power was adjusted to obtain the desired pressure at 1.01 bar.
3. When the condition is stabilized, the steam (Tsat) and surface temperature for dropwise
(Tsurf), Tin(T3) and Tout(T4), and flowrate was recorded in the table.

EXPERIMENT 4: THE EFFECT OF AIR INSIDE THE CHAMBER

FOR DROPWISE CONDENSER

1. Cooling water was circulated through the dropwise condenser at the highest flowrate
until the pressure is reduced to below 1 bar.
2. The discharge valve, V4 was opened. The amount of air was let to enter the chamber.
(Note: Increase of 0.01 bar indicates 1% of air is injected)
3. The water flow rate was adjusted to the condenser starting with a minimum value of
0.1LPM.
4. The heater power was adjusted to obtain the desired pressure at 1.01bar.
5. When the condition was stabilized, the steam (Tsat) and surface temperature for
dropwise (Tsurf), Tin(T1) and Tout(T2), and flowrate was recorded in the table.

9
RESULTS AND CALCULATIONS
EXPERIMENT 1

Drop-wise and film-wise condensation is a condensation outside the surface.

Film-wise condensation is when drops initially formed quickly and it produces a continuous
film of liquid on surface.

Drop-wise condensation is when drops of liquid form from vapour at particular nucleation
sites on solid surface, and drops remains separated during forming of drops until it get carried
away by gravity.

A liquid film is generally a poor conductor of heat, contributing much to the thermal
resistance and inefficiency of this condensation. Drop-wise condensation has a very low
resistance to the transfer of heat and that is why drop-wise condensation has a higher heat
fluxes compared to film-wise condensation.

10
EXPERIMENT 2

Volume Power Volume Mass Flow Tin Tout Tsat Tsurf

flow rate (W) flow rate Rate (℃ ) (℃ ) (℃ ) (℃ )
(LPM) (m3/s) (kg/s)

0.1 175 1.667x10-6 1.667x10-3 27.5 28.9 70.2 28.7

0.2 132 3.333x10-6 3.333x10-3 27.6 27.9 71.0 27.7
0.3 63 5.000x10-6 5.000x10-3 28.0 28.2 71.0 27.7
0.4 144 6.667x10-6 6.667x10-3 28.1 28.1 70.7 27.2
0.5 65 8.333x10-6 8.333x10-3 28.0 28.0 71.1 27.1
0.6 169 1.000x10-5 1.000x10-2 27.8 27.8 70.5 26.9
0.7 34 1.167x10-5 1.167x10-2 27.6 27.6 71.1 26.7
0.8 365 1.333x10-5 1.333x10-2 27.3 27.3 70.2 26.4
0.9 14 1.500x10-5 1.500x10-2 27.0 27.0 71.2 26.2
1.0 215 1.667x10-5 1.667x10-2 26.8 27.8 70.3 25.5

Tsat-Tsurf Tout- Tin ∆Tlm Q ∅ U

(K ) (K ) (K ) (J/s) (W/m2) (W/m2∙K)

41.5 1.4 42.0 9.76x10−3 2.04 0.05

43.3 0.3 43.2 4.18x10−3 0.87 0.02
43.3 0.2 42.9 4.18x10−3 0.87 0.02
43.5 0.0 0 0 0 0
44.0 -0.1 0 -3.48 x 10−3 -0.73 0
43.6 -0.1 0 -4.18x10−3 -0.87 0
44.4 -0.1 0 -4.88x10−3 -1.02 0
43.8 -0.2 0 -0.01 -2.09 0
45.0 -0.2 0 -0.01 -2.09 0
44.8 -0.2 43.0 -0.01 -2.09 -0.05

11
Graph 1:

45
Heat Flux Vs Temperature Difference
40
of Filmwise Condensation
35

H
e 30
a
t
25
F
l
u 20
x
( 15
ϕ
)
10

0
0 20 40 60
Tsat-Tsurf 80
(degC) 100 120 140

Graph 2:

45
Heat Transfer Coefficient vs Temperature Difference of
Filmwise
40 Condensation
35
H
e 30
a
t
25
F
l
u 20
x
15
(
ϕ
) 10

0
Tsat-Tsurf (degC)
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5

12
13
100%

90%

80%

70%

60%

50% Column1
Series 1
40%

30%

20%

10%

0%
Category 1 Category 2 Category 3 Category 4
EX
PERIMENT 3:

Volume Power, Volume Mass Flow Tin Tout Tsat Tsurf

flow rate qx flow rate Rate (℃ ) (℃ ) (℃ ) (℃ )
(LPM) (W) (m3/s) (kg/s)

0.4 740 6.667x10-6 6.667x10-3 29.8 45.2 72.7 85.5

0.6 754 1.000x10-5 1.000x10-2 29.7 43.2 72.7 84.4
0.8 760 1.333x10-5 1.333x10-2 29.7 40.8 72.5 80.0
1.0 764 1.667x10-5 1.667x10-2 29.7 39.1 72.4 77.8
1.2 762 2.000x10-5 2.000x10-2 29.7 37.7 72.3 75.5
1.4 765 2.333x10-5 2.333x10-2 29.7 36.9 72.1 73.0
1.6 753 2.667x10-5 2.667x10-2 29.8 36.0 72.1 71.8
1.8 770 3.000x10-5 3.000x10-2 29.9 35.4 71.8 70.2
2.0 762 3.333x10-5 3.333x10-2 29.9 34.7 71.8 68.2
2.2 747 3.667x10-5 3.667x10-2 29.9 34.5 71.7 67.7

Tsat-Tsurf Tout- Tin ∆Tlm q ∅ U

(K ) (K ) (K ) (J/s) (W/m2) (W/m2∙K)

-12.80 15.40 34.63 0.4292 89.60 2.587

-11.70 13.50 35.83 0.5643 117.81 3.288
-7.50 11.10 36.97 0.6185 129.12 3.493
-5.40 9.40 37.81 0.6550 136.74 3.617
-3.20 8.00 38.46 0.6688 139.62 3.630
-0.90 7.20 38.69 0.7021 146.58 3.789
0.30 6.20 39.12 0.6912 144.30 3.689

14
 1.60 5.50 39.09 0.6897 143.99 3.684
3.60 4.80 39.45 0.6687 139.60 3.539
4.00 4.60 39.46 0.7051 147.20 3.730

Graph 3:

Heat Flux vs Temperature Difference for Dropwise

Condensation 160

140

120

100

80
Heat Flux
60 Dr
op
40 wis
e
20

0
-14 -12 -10 -8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6
Tsat-Tsurf (degC)

Graph 4:

15
 Surface heat Transfer Coefficient vs Temperature
Difference for Dropwise Condensation
4

3.5

2.5

Surface heat 2
transfer
coefficient Dro
1.5 pwi
se

0.5

0
-14 -12 -10 -8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6
Tsat-Tsurf (degC)

Graph 5:

160

140

120

100
Heat Flux(W/m²)

filmwise
80 dropwise

60

40

20

0
-20 -10 0 10 20 30 40 50
Temperature Difference,Tsat- Tsurf (K)

16
Graph 6:

3.5

2.5
U, (W/m².K)

filmwise
2 dropwise

1.5

0.5

0
-20 -10 0 10 20 30 40 50
Temperature Difference, Tsat- Tsurf (K)

EXPERIMENT 4:

For Dropwise Condenser

Volume Power, Volume Mass Flow Tin Tout Tsat Tsurf

flow rate qx flow rate Rate (℃ ) (℃ ) (℃ ) (℃ )
(LPM) (W) (m3/s) (kg/s)

0.1 966 1.667x10-6 1.667x10-3 30.6 31.3 70.8 30.3

0.2 968 3.333x10-6 3.333x10-3 30.5 31.2 71.0 30.2
0.3 970 5.000x10-6 5.000x10-3 30.5 31.2 70.0 29.9
0.4 916 6.667x10-6 6.667x10-3 30.5 31.2 70.8 30.0
0.5 913 8.333x10-6 8.333x10-3 30.5 31.2 70.7 29.9
0.6 920 1.000x10-5 1.000x10-2 30.5 31.2 70.7 30.0
0.7 930 1.167x10-5 1.167x10-2 30.5 31.2 70.4 29.9
0.8 928 1.333x10-5 1.333x10-2 30.5 31.2 70.6 29.9
0.9 856 1.500x10-5 1.500x10-2 30.6 31.3 70.6 29.9
1.0 917 1.667x10-5 1.667x10-2 30.6 31.4 70.6 29.9

Tsat-Tsurf Tout- Tin ∆Tlm q ∅ U

17
 (K ) (K ) (K ) (J/s) (W/m2) (W/m2∙K)

40.5 0.7 39.85 0.0049 1.02 0.03

40.8 0.7 40.15 0.0098 2.04 0.05
39.8 0.7 39.15 0.01 2.09 0.05
40.9 0.7 39.95 0.02 4.18 0.10
40.8 0.7 39.85 0.02 4.18 0.10
40.7 0.7 39.85 0.03 6.26 0.16
40.5 0.7 39.55 0.03 6.26 0.16
40.7 0.7 39.75 0.04 8.35 0.21
40.7 0.7 39.65 0.04 8.35 0.21
40.7 0.8 39.55 0.06 12.53 0.32

Graph 7:

Graph of Surface Heat Coefficient vs Temperature

Difference for Dropwise Condenser in the presence of air.
1.6

1.4

1.2

0.8
U (W/m2K)

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
0 3 6 9 12 15 18
Temperature Difference (Tsat-Tsurf), K

q x =¿ Heater power (W)

q = Rate of Heat Transfer (J/s)

Tsat = Saturation Temperature (K)

18
Tsurf = Surface Temperature (K)

∅=¿ Heat Flux (W/m2)

U = Heat Transfer Coefficient (W/m2∙K)

∆Tlm = log-mean Temperature Difference (K)

19
Calculations:

Example of calculation for Experiment 2 of flow rate 0.1LPM:

4. Volume flow rate, V̇ (LPM to m3/s)

L 1m 3
0.1 (
min 1000 L )( 1min
60 s )
=1.667 ×10 −6
m3 / s

5. Mass flow rate,ṁ (kg/s)

ṁ
ρ=
V̇
ρwater =1000 kg /m3

1000 kg 1.667 ×10−6 m3

ṁ=ρ V̇ = (m 3 )( s )
=1.667 ×10−3 kg /s

6. Rate of heat transfer, q (W)

q=ṁ C p ∆ T

C p .water =4.18 J /kg ∙ K

∆ T =( T out −T ¿ )=32.3−27.1=5.20 ℃=5.20 K

J
q=(1.667× 10−3 kg /s) 4.18 ( kg )
∙ K (5.20 K ) = 0.03623 J /s = 0.03623 W

7. Heat flux, ∅ (W/m2)

q
∅=
A

Area=πDL
D = Diameter = 12.7 mm = 0.0127m
L = Length= 120 mm = 0.12m

A=π ( 0.0127 m ) ( 0.12 m ) =4.79 ×10−3 m 2

q 0.03623 W
∅= = =7.564 W /m2
A 4.79 ×10 m
−3 2

20
21
8. Heat Transfer Coefficient , U (W/m2∙K)
∅
U=
∆T lm

( T sat −T ¿ )−(T sat −T out )

∆ T lm=
ln ¿ ¿
( 71.0−27.1 )−(71.0−32.3)
∆ T lm=
ln ¿ ¿
∅ 7.564 W /m 2 2
U= = =0.1834 W /m ∙ K
∆T lm 41.25 K

22
DISCUSSION

In this experiment, we need to demonstrate the difference between filmwise and

dropwise condensation. Filmwise condensation produces a continuous film of liquid on the
surface. The solid boundary is completely cooled by layer of liquid that flows down. This
layer insulates the boundary. As more vapour condenses on the outside of the film, its
thickness increases and the film will start flowing downwards due to its weight. The liquid
film is generally a poor conductor of heat, contribute to higher thermal resistance.

Dropwise condensation produces drops of liquid form from a vapour at a nucleation

sites on solid surface. The solid boundary populated with liquid drops but still bare surface.
These drops adhere together to become larger as condensation occurs. The bigger drops will
start to flowing downwards due to its weight and thus collecting all other static drops along
the way down. As the drops increase in size, the velocity increases, finally leaving a trail of a
bare surface free from liquid film. This bare surface results very little resistance to the
transfer of heat. Thus, dropwise condensation can have a higher heat fluxes.

For the same operating conditions, dropwise condensation exhibits a much higher and
efficient heat transfer compared to filmwise. Surface heat transfer coefficient of dropwise
condensation is much larger than filmwise but the condition for dropwise condensation is
difficult to maintain. Dropwise condensation is not considered to be suitable for deliberate
employment in the process equipment. It is because a special material must be employed such
as low thermal conductivity, low surface energy, low wetting or need to be highly polished to
attain dropwise condensation.The advantages of dropwise are apparent, resulting in a smaller
heat transfer rate area and small temperature difference. Although dropwise condensation is
always desirable, it seldom occurs for a continuous period of time.

We also need to find heat flux and the surface heat transfer coefficient for the
dropwise and filmwise condensation respectively. From graph 5 and 6, it is clearly shown
that dropwise condensation has higher heat flux and surface heat coefficient.

The effect of air at the dropwise condensation lowered the surface heat transfer
coefficient. Value of surface heat transfer coefficient without the presence of air is much
higher than one with presence of air.

23
 The errors that possibly occurred when we conducted this experiment, one of them is
we frequently opened the valve 1 and valve 5 and the temperature is increasing rapidly. The
pressure also not maintained at steady pressure. It might affect the temperature of the
condenser and it resulted in some errors when we taking the value and calculate the value.
Other than that, the values were taken before the system completely stabilized and it willaffet
the results that we gained.

CONCLUSION

Based on the experiments that we conducted, we can conclude that condensation can
occur in two ways, dropwise and filmwise condensation. Dropwise condensation is much
more efficient compared to the filwise condensation. The heat fluxes and surface heat transfer
coefficient shows that dropwise condensation have a higher values than filmwise
condensation. Also, the presence of air in the condenser will affect the heat flux and surface
heat transfer coefficient. The condenser is more efficient without the presence of the air.
Thus, the objectives of this experiment already achieved.

24
RECOMMENDATION

1. Let the system stabilize first before record the readings and data.
2. Must ensure that the heater is always fully immersed in the water throughout the
experiment to prevent it the chamber from cracking.
3. Do not start heater switch unless there is water covering the heater.
4. For the condenser, make sure that distilled water used is free from any impurities to
prevent blockage inside the condenser.
5. Do not switch on mains power supply and main switch before ensuring all the valves
are closed.
6. Operate the power regulatory knobs of the temperature indicator gently.
7. Cool down the equipment before draining the water inside the chamber so that the
heater will not be overheated when there is no water inside the chamber.

REFERENCES
1. Manual laboratory of Film Boiling Condensation, Faculty of Chemical Engineering,
UiTM Shah Alam.
2. Madam SitiNorazian Ismail, Lecturer of Chemical Engineering, UiTM Shah Alam.
3. Cengel Y.A. and Boles A., Thermodynamics: An Engineering Approach, 7th ed.,
McGraw Hill, 2011.
4. Incropera F.P., Dewitt D.P., Bergman T.L. and Lavine A.S., Fundamentals of Heat
and Mass Transfer, 6th ed., John Wiley & Sons, 2007.
5. http://www.solution.com.my/pdf/HE163(A4).pdf

25
APPENDICES

26