The log is base 10 logarithm.

From the available test data, Larson and Miller had discovered
that
for a given material the same LMP corresponded to the same rupture stress, and thus the
same allowable
stress. For instance, for a given design with a given allowable stress, we can determine any
(T, t)
combination that is suitable for the service. This is done by expressing the (T, t) condition as
(LMP)2,
and setting (LMP)2 = (LMP)1, a known condition like the original design condition. From this
relation,
service life can be determined for any given operating temperature, and vice versa.
Appendix V
of B31.3 adopts this relationship in evaluating temperature and time variations for high
temperature
service. In this regard, it should be remembered that B31 allowable stress is based on
100,000 hours
of rupture life.
1.3.4 Stability Failure
The pipe can also fail due to stability, which is caused mainly by compressive stress. The
stability
problem occurs mainly on large thin wall shells and pipes. However, it may also occur on
thick pipes
in a deepwater environment. Figure 1.9 shows several situations that may have stability
problem.
Under external pressure, the first priority is to get some idea about the potential buckling of
a long
segment of un-stiffened pipe. A long segment of pipe produces two-lobe buckling with an
allowable
external pressure as
Pallow 􀀠
2E
3(1 􀀐 􀁑 2)
(t 􀀒D)3 (1.3)
where
E = modulus of elasticity
t = thickness
D = outside diameter
ν = Poisson’s ratio
The above equation includes a safety factor of 3 applied over the theoretical formula derived
by
Bresse-Bryan [21]. If the allowable external pressure is smaller than the design external
pressure, either
the pipe thickness is increased or stiffening rings are applied to increase the allowable
pressure.
When the un-stiffened pipe segment is short, the buckling may occur with two or more lobes
depending
on the diameter, thickness, and length. The procedure for evaluating the buckling in this
case is
complicated, but fairly standardized. The allowable external pressure is generally checked
according
to the procedure outlined in UG-28 through UG-30 of ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel
(B&PV)
Code, Section VIII, Division 1 [22].
Stability is very sensitive to imperfection and out-of-roundness of the shell. The ASME
procedure
for external pressure design is based on 1% diametrical out-of-roundness of the shell. This is
the same
tolerance for most of the standard specifications on shells and pipes. However, there are
some specifications,
such as API-5L and ASTM A-53, which have a diametrical out-of-roundness tolerance of 2%
(±1%). Some adjustments are required when using the ASME procedure for external
pressure design
of pipe having a diametrical out-of-roundness greater than 1%.
Figure 1.9b shows some situations of instability due to axial compressive stress. The
compressive
load may create an overall column-buckling problem as in all structural systems. The main
concern
of column buckling is the sustained load such as the bellow expansion joint pressure end
forces. The
effect of the self-limiting compressive load, such as the thermal expansion force, is generally
benign
because the force is readily reduced from slackening of the buckled pipe. For local shell
buckling, we
have full circle wrinkling, square wave buckling, and bending wrinkling. Within the elastic
range, the
allowable compressive stress may be taken as [22]
SAllow 􀀠
0􀀑125
2
E(t 􀀒R)