Construction of Sound Water Environment and

Sustainable Water Supply System in Korea

HyungJae Yang (梁炯材), Ph.D.

National Institute of Environmental Research
hyungyang@hanmail.net
hjyang@me.go.kr

SUMMARY

In order to preserve water quality and maintain the soundness of ecosystems,

the inflow of water into rivers must be clean. Water purification facilities for the
inflow upstream of dams have been operated to improve water quality in dam
reservoirs. The Comprehensive Water Quality Management Measures for the four
major rivers, the main sources of drinking water, strengthened precautionary
policies by introducing the Total Maximum Daily Load Management System.
Management of nonpoint source that constitute 22-37% of total pollutants in terms
of BOD level, and designation of riparian buffer zones are being established for up
to 300m~1km from the water edge along the upstream banks of the four major rivers
where the development of new restaurant, lodging, livestock faming, and industrial
facilities are restricted.

Introduction

The measures mainly focused on end-of-pipe controls like constructing sewage

treatment facilities that were unable to meet the demand for clean water, and so in
1998 the Comprehensive Water Quality Management Measures for the Four Major
Rivers that are the Han, Nakdong, the Geum and the Yeongsan rivers, was established.
To facilitate the implementation of the measures, the Act on Watershed Management
and Community Support was enacted for each of the rivers from 1999 to 2002. The
Comprehensive Water Quality Management Measures for the four major rivers
strengthened precautionary policies by introducing the Total Maximum Daily Load
(TMDL) Management System, which contributes to sustainable management of water
resources by setting a target water quality. The water quality target has been set
differently based on the results of an environmental survey conducted on each river
basin and also taking into consideration specific water use.

Also, a joint management system including upstream and downstream has been
established and it includes the management of non-point source pollution
Along with rapid industrialization and urbanization in the 1960's and 1970's,
many rivers and streams became polluted. An increase in the number of
recreational facilities and restaurants due to the spreading leisure boom, and swine
farm wastewater have caused water pollution of public water bodies. Total pollution
load of Korea's rivers and streams is approximately 78.7% comes from sewage, and
20.7% & 0.6% from industrial & livestock wastewater by volume.

I. Environmentally-friendly Nature Preservation

1. Building space that allow for the harmonious coexistence of nature

and people

Water friendly zones near dams for leisure and cultural activities that
allow nature and people to enjoy the benefits of water have been created. For
the small-and medium-sized dams currently under construction, priority on
the environment in all steps from the design phase to management, coupled
with the adequate gathering and reflection of opinions of all interested
parties have been placed. In addition, the government is actively preparing
for the Kyoto Protocol by reducing carbon dioxide emissions via the
development of renewable energy sources such as tidal power and small-
scale hydropower generation, as well as using existing waterpower
generation.

ㅇ Examples of environmentally-friendly water resource management

- Fishery conservation facilities: fish ladders, spawning grounds,
spawning habitats
 - Water quality preservation facilities: manmade wetlands, algae curtains,
floating trash traps, and aeration systems
- Environmental improvements to areas adjacent or near dams: ecological
parks, building parks near dams, reforestation

ㅇ Development of clean energy

- Water power generation: Producing 2,457GWh of pollution-free
electricity annually
- Construction of the Shihwa tidal power plant: The world’s largest
generating capacity of 254MW(2005-2008)
- Small-scale hydro power generation, wind power generation, solar
energy power generation

2. Maintaining the soundness of ecosystems by improving water quality

In order to preserve water quality and maintain the soundness of ecosystems,

the inflow water into rivers must be clean. With this in mind, we are working to
improve water quality in dam reservoirs by building and operating water
purification facilities for the inflow upstream of dams.
One other method being used to meet this goal has been the government’s
expansion into the operations and management of the local autonomous
governments’ wastewater treatment facilities so as to prevent river pollution through
optimized operations.
At the Shihwa Lake, we have formed Korea’s largest manmade reed
wetlands park to promote the natural purification of inflowing water, With a variety
of facilities for the enjoyment of the natural surroundings, the Shihwa Lake reed
wetlands park is utilized as a place where people can visit and experience a natural
ecosystem.
Further, the park has also become a haven for endangered bird species and it
has truly become an ecological treasure.
<Figure 1-2> The field of reeds to improve water quality (Shihwa lake)
 Inflow
river

Effluent of WTP

Wetland Yongmun Bongrim

(Shinpung

<Figure 3> The soundness of ecosystems to improve water

3. Working together with citizens for a green nation

In cooperation with civic and environmental groups, the government

engages in a variety of environmental preservations such as “River Ecology
Exploration”, “Feeding Wild Birds” and “River Clean-up Activities.” As we move
forward. We will continue our efforts to create a “green world” through the full
support of activities not only to protect water resources but also for the overall
protection of the environment.
ㅇ “Love our river” campaign – Activities with cultural themes related to
“Our river” and cleanup activities for rivers near dams.
ㅇ Dan reservoir restoration campaign and Environmental preservation
institutes at six multi-purpose dams.
ㅇ Forest of life creation project – Creating enjoyable forested areas around multi
– purposes dam reservoirs jointly with the Korea Forest Service.
 II. Status of Water Quality

1. Water Resource

The total volume of annual mean water resources due to precipitation

is 126,700 million m3. 55% of this total is the surface runoff and 45% is lost in
the form of evaporation and infiltration. In 1998, out of 126,700 million m3,
stream water is 17,200 million m3 or 14% of total resources. Dam water is 10,300
million m3 or 8 % of the total resources. This indicates that only 22% of the total
water resources are presently utilized. Such a low rate use can be explained by the
fact that two-thirds of precipitation is concentrated in the period from June to
September, the summer season, and hence most of it is a lost as flood water.

On the other hand, groundwater resources are estimated to be 1,324,000

million m3, out of which 11,700 million m3 are usable. Currently, only 2,600
million m3 groundwater are utilized. If groundwater use (2,600 million m3) is
added to surface water use(25.4 billion m3), the total volume of water resources
use becomes 30.1 billion m3. An investigation of the use of water resources shows
that domestic water uses 6.2 billion m3, industrial and agricultural water uses 2.6
billion m3 and 14.9 billion m3, respectively. Others amount to 6.4 billion m3.

2. Status of River Water Quality

The two major sources of water pollution in Korea are domestic sewage and
industrial wastewater. Approximately 78.8% of domestic sewage, 20.7% of
industrial wastewater (and 0.6% of livestock wastewater) were discharged but these
amount will be increased slightly by the improvement of living standard and the
development of industry. The pollution trend at the representative point of 4 major
rivers is presented in Fig. 4-6. The water quality of the Han River has been
improved since 1986 because of the Han River project and getting worse after this.
The water quality of the Nakdong, Yeongsan and Geum River were similar level
generally since 1986, and getting worse since 1993, but the quality have been
improved since 1998 in terms of BOD.
 Trend of BOD Concentration of 4 Major Rivers (1998-2004)

6.8
6.5
6.2 6.1
5.9
Han(Paldang lake) 5.6

Nakdong(Mulgeum) 4.8

Geum(Buyeo)
Conc.(mg/L)

3.7
Yeongsan(Naju) 3.3 3.2
3.0 3.0
2.8 2.7
2.6 2.6 2.6
2.4
2.1

1.5 1.5
1.4 1.4
1.3 1.3 1.3

Year

<Figure 4> Trend of BOD Concentration of 4 Major Rivers (1998-2004)

Trend of T-N Concentration of 4 major Rivers('98-'04)

0.700

0.600 0.595 0.587

0.573

0.500
0.480
(mg/ℓ)

0.441 0.449
0.400 Han(Paldang lake)
Concentration

0.390
Nakdong(Mulgeum)
0.300 Geum(Buyeo)
Yeongsan(Naju)
0.200
0.186
0.169
0.125 0.127 0.130 0.138 0.128
0.121
0.116 0.121 0.114
0.100 0.107
0.076 0.085
0.050 0.050 0.058 0.054
0.040 0.036 0.033
0.000
98 99 00 01 02 03 04
Year

<Figure 5> Trend of T-N Concentration of 4 Major Rivers (1998-2004)

 Trend of T-P Concentration of 4 major Rivers('98-'04)

0.700

0.600 0.595 0.587

0.573

0.500
(mg/ℓ)

0.480
0.441 0.449
Han(Paldang lake)
Concentration

0.400 0.390
Nakdong(Mulgeum)
0.300
Geum(Buyeo)

0.200
Yeongsan(Naju)
0.186
0.169
0.125 0.127 0.130 0.138 0.128
0.121
0.116 0.107 0.121 0.114
0.100
0.076 0.085
0.050 0.050 0.058 0.054
0.040 0.036 0.033
0.000
98 99 00 01 02 03 04
Year

<Figure 6> Trend of T-P Concentration of 4 Major Rivers (1998-2004)

3. Achievement of Water Quality Standards

To preserve the pleasant water quality and protect the human health from any
water pollution, the environmental water quality standards in the river and the lakes
were established. The Ministry of Environment has established water quality
criteria 194 sections of rivers by purpose oh water use since 1991. The quality was
achieved 42.3% in 2005 (was 32% in 1998, 36.6% in 2004), as shown in table 1. In
the case of Han river, achieved 54%, much greater than Yeongsan and Sumjin river
that achieved 16.7% both only in 2005(Table 1).
<Table 1> Achieved Water Quality Criteria (1998-2005)

98 99 00 01 02 03 04 05
National 31.8 29.9 27.8 29.4 37.6 49 36.6 42.3
Han 38.5 38.5 38.5 42.3 53.8 57.7 53.8 53.8
Nakdong 25 30 20 22.5 32.5 55 32.5 45
Geum 55.3 36.8 34.2 26.3 31.6 44.7 34.2 44.7
Yeongsan 16.7 8.3 8.3 25 25 41.7 16.7 16.7
Seomjin - - 16.7 16.7 33.3 33.3 16.7 16.7
Others 19.1 23.9 23.9 26.1 32.6 41.3 30.4 34.8

<Table 2> Status of Achieved Water Quality Criteria (2005)

Classification Class Class Class Class Achieve

Total ClassⅠ ment
River Ⅱ Ⅲ Ⅳ Ⅴ rate(%)
194
Total 120(41) 49(24) 9(5) 8(6) 8(6) 42.3
(82)
Han 52(28) 30(13) 11(7) 3(3) 2(1) 6(4) 53.8
Nakdong 40(18) 32(12) 6(4) 1(1) - 1(1) 45.0
Geum 38(17) 20(5) 12(6) 1(1) 5(5) - 44.7
Yeongsan 12(2) 5(0) 5(2) 1(0) 1(0) - 16.7
Sumjin 6(1) 6(1) - - - - 16.7
Others 46(16) 27(10) 15(5) 3(0) - 1(1) 34.8
( ) : Number of achieved section

4. Managing the Pollution Sources

Urban districts develop basic plans for sewage system maintenance, and treat
household sewage under the Sewage Act raising the sewage treatment ratio was
more than 80% in 2005.
In non-urban districts, each building must maintain its own sewage disposal
facility according to the Sewage, Night Soil and Livestock Wastewater Treatment
Act. In addition, there are standards for nitrogen and phosphorous in the sewage
treatment facilities to prevent eutrophication, and stricter effluent standards are
being applied to the upper reaches of major rivers.
Effluents from factories are addressed by the Water Quality Preservation Act,
which regulates allowed effluent amounts differentiated by wastewater volume and
by region. In addition, the government created the pollutant load-based effluent
control system by introducing the wastewater charge system.

Effluent standards for wastewater from the livestock farming are regulated by
the Sewage, Night Soil and Livestock Wastewater Treatment Act, which applies
differentiated standards according to the size of stalls and the region. Particularly,
the government has set up public treatment facilities to treat wastewater discharges
from small livestock producers, and is constantly expanding its support in order to
recycle livestock night soil for fertilizer and other resources

To maintain water quality and to elevate nationwide river quality above Grade
II (a Korean standard signifying water fit for human consumption), about 12 trillion
won will be invested over the next five years to connect more buildings to sewerage.
The percentage of households with sewage service was 66% in 1998 and 78.7% in
2003. By 2005, that figure was 81.4%.
Currently, 268 sewage treatment facilities in 2004, 191 nightsoil treatment
plants, 41 livestock wastewater treatment plants in 2003, and 125 wastewater
treatment plants (industrial complex) in 2004 are in operation for water quality
improvement(Table 2).

<Table 2> Sewage Treatment Facilities

Year
2004 2003 2002
Facilities
Sewage Treatment Facilities
268 242 201
(numbers)
Capacity
21,535 20,954 19,976
(thousand ㎥/day)

Treatment ratio 81.4% 78.7% 75.8%

 Management has been difficult in case of non-point pollution sources,
largely due to drainage from urban streets and agriculture. Following the revision of
the Water Quality Preservation Act in 1999, a legal framework has been prepared
for the management of non-point pollution sources. Concrete management measures
are underway including designating a Riparian Buffer Zone, creating wetlands and
aquatic plants in riversides, and so on.

The demand for clear and clean water is ever-growing as the living standards
and environmental consciousness of Koreans rise. Since the 1960s, the need to
address the deterioration of water resources due to the industrialization, urbanization,
and population growth has been increasingly recognized by the government and the
public, especially after the major pollution accident involving phenol on the
Nakdong River in 1991. Accordingly, the Ministry of Environment (MOE)
established the Comprehensive Measures on the Provision of Clean Water in 1993
for the protection of public health and the creation of pleasant water environments.

MOE established the Comprehensive Water Quality Management Measures for

the Four Major Rivers between 1998 and 2000. The four major rivers are the Han-
gang, Nakdong-gang, Geum-gang, and Yeongsan/Sumjin-gang, which meet the
water needs of more than 40 million Korean people. Major policies include the total
water pollution load management system, riparian buffer zones, land purchasing, a
water use charge and resident support measures. To ensure the smooth
implementation of these measures through legal backing, the Act on Water-shed
Management and Community Support was enacted for each of the rivers between
1999 and 2002. These measures and acts were developed through more than 420
discussions and public hearings with stakeholders including residents, local
governments, and experts over a period of five years from 1998 to 2002. With 9.65
billion USD in total investments, the overarching goals are to raise the quality of
water resources to Grade I or II according to the Korean index (see table below) and
to raise the proportion of the population connected to sewerage facilities to 81.4%
by 2004.
 <Table 3> Grade Level Index (lakes and marshes)

Grade Coliform
pH COD SS DO T-P T-N
level Count

I 6.5~8.5 <1 <1 > 7.5 < 50 < 0.010 < 0.200

II 6.5~8.5 <3 <5 >5 < 1,000 < 0.030 < 0.400

III 6.5~8.5 <6 < 15 >5 < 5,000 < 0.050 < 0.600

VI 6.0~8.5 <8 < 15 >2 - < 0.100 < 1.0

No floating
V 6.0~8.5 < 10 >2 - < 0.150 < 1.5
trash
※N&P Criteria
- TN/TP ratio < 7 : TP criteria is not applied
- TN/TP ratio ≥ 16 : TN criteria is not applied

<Table 4> Grade Level Index (Rivers)

Grade suspended Coliform

pH BOD DO
level Solids Count

I 6.5~8.5 <1 < 25 > 7.5 < 50

II 6.5~8.5 <3 < 25 >5 < 1,000

III 6.5~8.5 <6 <2 >5 < 5,000

VI 6.0~8.5 <8 < 100 >2 -

No floating
V 6.0~8.5 < 10 >2 -
trash
* Unit: mg/L for all except Colon Bacilli, MPN/100ml
 III. Policy of Water Quality Management

1. TMDL Management System

1) Introduction

The TMDL involves determining the target water quality standard for each
block of the water systems, computing the maximum allowable load, and regulating
the amount of pollutants discharged from the total pollution load management
watershed unit, a watershed within a water system route for which the target level of
water quality is determined within the maximum permissible load. In addition, this
system helps achieve a balance between preservation-oriented and development-
oriented aspects in carrying out regional development projects approved by the
government, given that their target water quality levels are attainable. Korea’s TMDL
Management System distinguishes the Han River from the other three rivers.

For the Han River water system, local governments may operate the system at
their option, whereas for the water system of the other three rivers (Nakdong River,
Geum River and Yeongsan River), neighboring metropolitan cities and cities/counties
should adhere to the TMDL if local authorities fail to attain its water quality standard
on the system. The table below shows detailed information on the commencement of
the system. Major items related to determining the target water quality standard,
setting priorities, producing the action plan, allocating pollution quotas, investigating
and assessing the performance, and punishing against nonperformers are described in
detail below.

TMDL providing the guidelines necessary in carrying out a ‘Master Plan for
TMDL’ prepared by the local city and province neighboring the river, and an ‘Action
Plan for TMDL’ made by the local city and county (Gun) neighboring the river.
These orders encompass basic principles and processes for the system, such as
specific chemicals requiring TMDL, guidelines to work out a TMDL plan, and
standards and methods of pollution load allocation.
<Table 5> Commencement of Obligatory TMDL

Water System Area Commencement

Metropolitan City July, 2004
Nakdong River Basin City July, 2005
County July, 2006
Metropolitan City July, 2005
The Geum River Daecheong Lake & Juam July, 2006
& Lake Watershed Regions
Yeongsan River Basin Other Counties July, 2008

The Minister of the MOE determines the target water quality standard for
waters running along the boundaries between large cities, as well as for local
authorities of each watershed, while the head of each local authority determines a
target water quality standard for the regional management units within the watershed.
The success of this management strategy depends on the appropriate division of the
area into total pollution load management units and local authority’s efforts to meet
the target water quality standard set forth by the MOE.

According to this specification, the MOE determines such standards if the

head of a local authority fails to set proper water quality standards. In case of the
Nakdong River, the government determined and announced its target water quality
standards in September 2003, after three years of negotiation; whereas for the Geum
River and Yeongsan River, discussions between the Ministry and related local
authorities are in progress. Regarding the target water quality standard for each sub-
basin in urbanized watersheds, the city mayor and the head of the province are
required to announce target standards consistent with the MOE’s standard upon the
approval from the MOE.

The heads of the metropolitan authorities related to water management should

establish a master plan for the TMDL based on the principles of the MOE, and then
attain approval from the Minister. The master plan is needed in order to describe
different issues.
2) Action Plan for TMDL

The mayors of metropolitan cities, the mayors of regular cities and the heads
of the counties should establish an action plan for TMDL after considering the
government-approved master plan, in order to get approval from the MOE. However,
in some cases, like determining target standards for the region responsible for the
metropolitan cities, the head of the Watershed Environmental Office in the region can
approve an action plan. If significant difficulties are anticipated in meeting water
quality standards specified by the MOE, the authoritative figures, like the Minister,
the mayor, or the head of county within the region are given the right to prohibit
construction of buildings, wastewater discharge facilities and livestock excretion
discharge facilities.

The action plan describes in detail pollution quotas and affordable levels of
the discharge amount for each major polluter (i.e., discharge facilities, public
treatment facilities with a certain size or larger). Specification of pollution quotas and
discharge amounts are not affected by the current maximum permissible discharge
standard.

2. Designation of Riparian Buffer Zones

1) Introduction

Pollutants created in areas near rivers flow directly into rivers without
undergoing purification process, thus degrading the quality of the water. Hence,
MOE set certain areas around the rivers as riparian buffer zones to restrict the
construction of restaurants, lodging facilities, bathhouses, factories, and livestock
sheds. Aiming to recover the eco-system in riparian buffer zones and prevent water
pollution by non-point sources, Ministry of Environment plans to gradually
purchase land in riparian buffer zones, and to create riparian buffer forests
<Map 1> Riparian Buffer zones for Han river
2) Achievements

The pollutants that are discharged from areas adjacent to rivers can have more
serious effects on the water quality of the river because there is no purification process
and the pollutants are directly discharged to the river. Therefore, certain areas adjacent
to the river (300m~1km) are designated as riparian buffer zones, preventing
restaurants, lodgings, factories, etc. from being built in those zones, thereby
preventing new pollutants from being discharged into the river.

The government is buying land within riparian buffer zones after going
through negotiations with residents to create riparian buffer forests in an effort to
restore the riverside ecosystems. This will also lower the impact of water pollution
arising from non-point source pollutants.
As of June 2005, a total of 1,062km2 is designated and managed as riparian
buffer zones, including 191km2 in areas of the Han River, 275km2 in areas of the
Nakdong River, 373km2 in areas of the Geum River and 223km2 in areas of the
Yeongsan River(Table 6).

<Table 6> Designated Area as Riparian Buffer Zone

Water Total Han Nakdong Geum Yeongsan
system river river river river
1,062 191 275 373 223
Area(㎢)

In the process of designating certain areas near the 4 major rivers as riparian
buffer zones, there have been disputes over the infringement of private properties. In a
bid to resolve such problems, the government is currently purchasing land to be
designated as riparian buffer zones with the Watershed anagement Fund which are
created with the proceeds from the water use charge imposed on downstream residents.
Land purchasing started in 2000 for the Han River and in 2003 for the rest of he three
rivers and, as of June 2005, altogether 12,829 thousand m2 (about 3.88 million acres)
of land as bought for the purchasing cost of 265.4 billion won.

The government also plans to purchase land or structures in the riparian areas,
which have a significant effect on the quality of the water supply. Those lands will be
used as resting green zones for local residents. Thanks to the restoration of the
ecosystem in those areas, it is expected that nonpoint source pollutants will be highly
reduced, thereby contributing to the improvement of fresh water quality.

3. Management of Nonpoint Sources

Nonpoint source (NPS) pollution, unlike pollution from industrial and sewage
treatment plants, comes from many diffuse sources. NPS pollution is caused by
rainfall or snowmelt moving over and through the ground. As the runoff moves, it
picks up and carries away natural and human-made pollutants, finally depositing them
into lakes, rivers, wetlands, coastal waters, and even underground sources of drinking
water. These pollutants include
- Excess fertilizers, herbicides, and insecticides from agricultural lands and
residential areas;
- Oil, grease, and toxic chemicals from urban runoff and energy production;
- Sediment from improperly managed construction sites, crop and forest lands,
and eroding streambanks;
- Salt from irrigation practices and acid drainage from abandoned mines;
- Bacteria and nutrients from livestock, pet wastes, and faulty septic systems;
- Atmospheric deposition and hydro modification are also sources of nonpoint
source pollution (defined by US EPA)
Actually, according to the results of a survey conducted on the pollution load
of non-point sources in the four major rivers in Korea, non-point sources
constitute 22-37% of pollution in terms of BOD level. If T-N and T-P are included
in the analysis, the proportion of nonpoint sources is estimated to be greater.
Lastly, the management of nonpoint source pollution, including livestock
waste, is being actively improved through the new Comprehensive Nonpoint
Source Pollution Management Measures for the four Major Rivers, settled in
March 2004. This set of measures represents the growing focus of MOE water
policies on non-point source pollution in light of the fact that point source
pollution is being largely prevented through the widespread increase in sewage
systems and treatment facilities. Also, a Task Force Team on Livestock Waste
 Management and Use was created in April 2004 with the Ministry of Agriculture
and Forestry.

<Table 7> Non-point source loading for urban area

Unit : kg/ha·year
Mountains Farm Urban area Remarks

3.4 19.3 370.9 -

<Table 8> Urban Runoff

Unit: ㎜, (%)
Precipitation Surface Penetration Runoff
Mountains 515mm 342 155 18
(100%) (66.5) (30) (3.5)
Urban 515mm 235 100 180
(100%) (45) (20) (35)

In case of Paldang reservoir, the water source for 23 million people in the
capital region, the non-point source load represents 44.5% of total water pollution.
However, Ministry of Environment has thus far pursued water improvement
measures focused on point sources such as sewage disposal and treatment plants
and sewage pipeline renovation.

Non-point sources concern all areas such as urban planning, road construction,
and use of agricultural land, but have yet to be translated into action. Likewise,
roads, water-drainage and agricultural roads, which consider only safety and
convenience for cultivation, allow water to flow directly into rivers without
filtering pollutants. Also, since roadsides, parking lots, residential areas and
flower-beds are higher than roads, they cannot be used as space to filter non-point
source pollutants.

4) Maintaining Water Flow through New Riverside Vegetation

Within the riparian buffer zones along the river, the government prohibits the
construction of restaurants, hotels, bathhouses, livestock facilities, factories,
apartments, and condominiums. And sewage and wastewater effluent standards for
existing facilities are tightened to reduce pollutants as less than 10㎎/ℓ BOD.

5) Recovering Polluted River to Natural-type Rivers

Ministry of Environment is endeavoring to convert these created concrete

embankments rivers into natural-type rivers to protect the habitat for aquatic animals
and plants, and to create a pleasant river environment. It was started this project in
1986, several years ago, slightly modified the project and have been carrying out
natural-type river purification projects by creating natural rivers that can perform
natural purification function, water-friendly function, and ecological function.

A typical example of these efforts is found in the Anyang creek passing through
the capital region. In the past, the creek was ecologically dead, with only sewage
flowing. Fish are active and children can play in the creek, now. With this case taken
as a good model, Seoul City Government is ambitiously pushing to turn the
Cheonggye Stream located at the very heart of the city into a natural waterway. The
Cheonggye Stream is currently covered and is used as a road and a commercial
district. Seoul set aside 10 billion USD for executing the project.

4. Contingency Plan for emergency situations caused by harmful

Cyanobacterial bloom

Algal blooms can have many negative impacts including overgrowing

corals, negatively affecting seagrass communities, and washing up on beaches in
areas where tourism is economically essential. An additional concern for
cyanobacterial blooms are the toxins they produce and their impacts on other reef
organisms and humans.
The production of deterrent and toxic secondary metabolites by benthic
cyanobacteria probably facilitates their bloom formation on coral reefs because most
generalist grazers avoid this potential food source. Almost nothing is known about
the temporal and spatial patterns of bloom formation in reef habitats or about
environmental factors affecting bloom formation and persistence. Additionally,
secondary metabolite types and concentrations can vary considerably among
different collections of cyanobacteria, but environmental factors influencing this
chemical variation are not understood.
Coastal eutrophication that results from increases in nutrient supply is a critical
problem causing industulisation major changes in marine populations and
communities. The government goal is to reduce quantifies nutrient supply to rivers
and lakes

<Table 9> Criteria of Algae Alert System (藻類豫報制 基準)

Level Criteria

· When chlorophyll a concentration of successive samples are

Ⅰ between 15~25mg/㎥
and cyanobacterial cell numbers are between 500~5,000
cells/ml

· When chlorophyll a concentration of successive samples

Ⅱ exceed 25mg/㎥
and cyanobacterial cell numbers exceed 5,000 cells/ml

· When chlorophyll a concentration of successive samples

Ⅲ exceed 100 mg/㎥
and cyanobacterial cell numbers exceed 106 cells/ml and
surface scums form

· When chlorophyll a concentration of successive samples are

Release lower than 15mg/㎥
(解除) or cyanobacterial cell numbers are fewer than 500 cells/ml
 IV. Water Supply

1. Water Supply and Sewage

Korea's annual precipitation is estimated at 1,283 mm, which is 1.3 times higher
than the world's average precipitation (973 mm). However, annual precipitation per
capita is estimated at 2,705 tons, just one tenth of the world's average. Also, the
nation marks 1,550 tons per capita in terms of available domestic water resources,
making it a water-scarce country as determined by the UN. Despite the high water
usage rate compared to other OECD countries, Korea faces challenges in
undertaking dam constructions for water supply due to opposition from residents
and environmental impacts in dam surrounding areas. Additionally, Korea has
accomplished the formidable task of improving the water supply rate in
metropolitan areas to 98.5%, yet the rate in rural areas remains at 31.1%.

In response to these challenges, the Ministry of Environment launched the

Comprehensive Measures on Water Saving in March 2000 and has been pursuing
demand-oriented water policies in replacement of supply-oriented policies.
Furthermore, significant investments are being made to decrease the water supply
disparity between urban and rural areas as well as to strengthen water treatment
capacities to provide people with safe tap water.
- daily capacity in waterworks facilities = 29 million ㎥
- daily capacity in sewage treatment facilities = 21.5 million ㎥ (in 2004),

2. Water Supply System

Water supply system mainly focused on the regions of concentrated population

and such policies led to the 98.5% water supply rate in metropolitan areas. However
the rate in rural areas and islands has stayed at around 30%, which is one-third of
the coverage in metropolitan areas. As a result, people living in rural areas and small
islands - the areas of low precipitation in particular - have often been challenged by
severe water shortage even during periods of moderate drought. In this backdrop,
MOE has been making several efforts to reduce the water supply disparity among
regions by implementing effective policy measures while making appropriate
investments.
Water supply system in farming & fishing communities : Since 1994, Korea has
been promoting the waterworks development project in 215 locations. The goal is to
increase the water supply rate to 50%, which is a 34% increase from 16% in 1994.
Small islands, located in remote distance from the mainland, are often faced with
many barriers such as distance and poor economic situations in maintaining proper
water supply systems. In order to resolve such challenges, Korea is promoting
various water supply development projects in 133 locations including: development
of river source areas; construction of water treatment facilities; and installation of
desalination plants.

The government have increased the local water supply rate in stages to reach
95% coverage for the rehabilitation of waterworks facilities in small & mid-sized
cities during 1996 to 2005.
In continuous efforts to expand waterworks system to the areas of insecure water
supply such as fishing/ farming communities and small islands, the Government of
Korea plans to launch a 10-year investment plan started in 2005. The investment
will encompass rehabilitation projects in about 370 locations. Furthermore, MOE is
currently developing the “Mid & Long-term Investment Plan to Resolve Tap-Water
Supply Discrepancy.” Successful implementation of the plan will result in a
doubled supply rate (60~ 70%) in suburb areas including farming & fishing villages
and small islands.

Drinking water treatment measures have been widely expanded in order to

address public concerns related to waterborne viruses and pathogens. These efforts
include preparations for the adoption of water treatment standards as well as for the
improvements in water treatment facilities (April, 2003). In addition, MOE provided
thorough technical support for a total of 140 small (70) and technically vulnerable
(70) facilities.
In particular, the government has introduced advanced water treatment
technologies in facilities taking raw water from the 3 major rivers (Han, Nakdong,
Yongsan) that are contaminated by domestic and industrial wastes, covering 50% of
 the total project budget. These advanced techniques have been adopted in 17
facilities by 2002 and will also be introduced in Moonsan in Paju City, Moonsan-
Gun in Daegu City, and Ban-song County in Changwon City. Expert training for the
operators and operation assessments will also be undertaken in order to enhance the
efficiency of newly upgraded water treatment facilities. MOE is making to replace
42,757 km of aged water pipelines across the nation wide during 1997~2011.
13,799km water pipelines were replaced during 1997~2002.

Dam Intake Station

Arrival Basin

Intake Pump Chemacal

Grit Chamber

Flash Mixer

Flocculation Distribution
Basin Filtration

Clean Water
Sedimentation Well

<Figure 7 > Water purification and supply system

MOE prioritizes scientific water management that will secure tap water quality,
and a shift to consumer-oriented water management that will lead to greater
reliability for and trust from citizens. MOE saw another policy success by saving
585 million tons of water in 2003 compared to the amount used in 1999 through
active promotion of the Comprehensive Measures on Water Saving, a wide-ranging
set of measures that encompasses 14 action items including the expansion of water
 saving/reuse devices, adoption of a new water charge system that encourages greater
water saving, and gradual replacement of aged water pipelines.

With these measures, MOE set the national water saving target of saving 790
million tons of water by 2006.
In particular, significant efforts were made in the area of raising citizen
awareness on water saving. MOE organizes the annual Water Day ceremony, and
bolsters its endeavors through the promotion of various cultural activities and
contests relating to the themes of water and children and the opening of the "I Love
Water" homepage. (www.ilovewater.or.kr) With the launch of the sewage treatment
improvement project together with the Comprehensive Measures on the Provision of
Clean Water in the early 1990s, Korea had attained 81.4% sewage treatment rate by
2005. Concrete measures are underway to help manage sewage and excreta
disposals with greater efficiency. In accordance with the Comprehensive Plans for
Water Management established in 1996, water treatment facilities are undergoing
significant expansion with the target of raising water quality in major supply sources
to the grade level II.
42
0
39 409 409

1 0 399
395
36 388
인0 380

33 374
365 363
362
당0 359

95 96 97 98 99 00 01 02 03 04 05

<Figure 8> Tap Water Consumption (ℓ /capita, day)

자료 2005 T 상수도