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Electromagnetic Energy and Momentum: Conservation of Energy: The Poynting Vector
Electromagnetic Energy and Momentum: Conservation of Energy: The Poynting Vector
1
Now replace the curl of the electric field, ∇ × E + ∂B ∂t and substitute back into the energy equation,
ˆ ˆ
3 ∂D
J·Ed x = E · (∇ × H) − E · d3 x
V V ∂t
ˆ
∂B ∂D
= − ∇ · (E × H) + H · +E· d3 x
V ∂t ∂t
Using linearity of the fields, the last two terms we write as the rate of change of the energy density,
∂u 1 ∂
= (E · D + B · H)
∂t 2 ∂t
1 ∂ 1
= E · E + B · B
2 ∂t µ
1 ∂E 2 ∂B
= 2E · + B·
2 ∂t µ ∂t
∂ (E) 1 ∂B
= E· + B ·
∂t µ ∂t
∂D ∂B
= E· +H·
∂t ∂t
Therefore,
ˆ ˆ
∂D
J · E d3 x = E · (∇ × H) − E · d3 x
V V ∂t
ˆ
∂u
= − + ∇ · (E × H) d3 x
V ∂t
ˆ
∂u
0 = J·E+ + ∇ · (E × H) d3 x
V ∂t
Since the volume is arbitrary, the integrand must vanish at each point,
∂u
+ ∇ · (E × H) = −J · E
∂t
The J · E term is the energy given up by the fields to do work on the particles. If there is no work done on
any particles, then this vanishes and we have the continuity equation,
∂u
+∇·S=0
∂t
where the electromagnetic current is given by the Poynting vector,
S=E×H
which is interpreted to be the energy flowing across a unit area per second. This is clearer in the integral
form if we use the divergence theorem on the Poynting term,
ˆ
dWmech
= J · E d3 x
dt V
ˆ ˆ
∂u 3
= − d x− ∇ · (E × H) d3 x
V ∂t
ˆ ˆ
V
d 3
= − ud x− ∇ · S d3 x
dt V
˛ V
dWEM
= − − n · S d2 x
dt
S
2
We have
˛
dWmech dWEM
+ = − n · S d2 x
dt dt
S
showing that the time rate of change of the total mechanical and electromagnetic energy in a region, V , is
minus the rate at which energy flows out over the bounding surface, S. This is the reason that S has the
interpretation as an energy flux.
where we have taken q → ρd3 x and qv → Jd3 x. Now replace the current density as before, but, because
Jackson leaves the general case as an exercise, we work in vacuum,
ˆ
dPmech 2 ∂E
= 0 E (∇ · E) + 0 c ∇ × B − 0 × B d3 x
dt ∂t
V
ˆ
∂E
= 0 E (∇ · E) − B × c2 ∇ × B − d3 x
∂t
V
ˆ
∂E
= 0 E (∇ · E) − c2 B × (∇ × B) + B × d3 x
∂t
V
The right side of this equation would be symmetric in E and cB if we had an additional term of the form
c2 B (∇ · B). But this term is zero anyway because the divergence of the magnetic field vanishes, so we can
add it in without changing anything,
ˆ ˆ
dPmech ∂ 1 3
E (∇ · E) + c2 B (∇ · B) − c2 B × (∇ × B) − E × (∇ × E) d3 x
=− 2
S d x + 0
dt ∂t c
V V
3
We would like to make the right side of this relationship look like the continuity equation again, but this
time the density is a vector quantity, the momentum density,
1
g= S
c2
For each component of momentum we want a corresponding divergence. This will make the right side take
the form
∂gi X ∂
+ Tij
∂t j
∂xj
so that, in the absence of mechanical work, the momentum density is conserved.
We recognize the divergence term with a simple rearrangement. Consider the electric field parts alone,
since the magnetic parts will rearrange in the same way. We have
X ∂ X
[E (∇ · E) − E × (∇ × E)]i = Ei Ej − εijk Ej (∇ × E)k
j
∂xj
jk
X ∂ X ∂
= Ei Ej − εijk Ej εklm Em
j
∂xj ∂xl
jklm
X ∂ X ∂
= Ei Ej − (δil δjm − δim δjl ) Ej Em
j
∂xj ∂xl
jlm
X ∂ X ∂ ∂
= Ei Ej − Ej Ej − Ej Ei
j
∂xj j
∂xi ∂xj
X ∂ X ∂ X ∂
= Ei Ej + Ej Ei − Ej Ej
j
∂xj j
∂xj j
∂xi
X ∂ 1 ∂ X
= (Ei Ej ) − Ej Ej
j
∂xj 2 ∂xi j
X ∂ 1X ∂
δij E2
= (Ei Ej ) −
j
∂xj 2 j ∂xj
X ∂ 1
2
= Ei Ej − δij E
j
∂xj 2
The same calculation holds for the magnetic field so the full integrand becomes
X ∂ 1
2 2 2 2 2 2
ε0 E (∇ · E) + c B (∇ · B) − c B × (∇ × B) − E × (∇ × E) i = 0 Ei Ej + c Bi Bj − δij E + c B
j
∂xj 2
X ∂
= Tij
j
∂xj
4
ˆ
d
= g d3 x
dt
V
dPEM
=
dt
and applying the divergence theorem to each component of Tij ,
ˆ X ˛ X
∂
Tij d3 x = nj Tij d2 x
j
∂x j j
V S
we have
˛ X
d (Pmech )i d (PEM )i
+ = 0 nj Tij d2 x
dt dt j
S
For each component of momentum, the right side gives the momentum flowing across the bounding surface.
Notice that the right side of the conservation law has a positive sign, even though nj is the outward normal.
This is because the way we have defined Tij gives the negative of the momentum flux.
To check this sign, consider a plane electromagnetic wave with electric field in the x direction, magnetic
field in the y direction, and propagating in the positive z direction. Then Tij has components
2 1 2 2 2
Tij ≡ 0 Ei Ej + c Bi Bj − δij E + c B
2
1 2
2E
1 2 2
= 0 2c B
− 12 E 2 + c2 B 2