Electromagnetic Waves

PYL100: Electromagnetic Waves and Quantum Mechanics

Semester I 2018-2019

Prof. Rohit Narula1

1 Department of Physics

The Indian Institute of Technology, Delhi

September 13, 2018

Outline

Preliminaries

What is a Wave?

Dispersion and Group Velocity

Electromagnetic Waves in Vacuum

EM Waves in Linear, Homogenous and Isotropic Media

References

I Introduction to Electrodynamics, David J. Griffiths [IEDJ]

I Chapter IX. Electromagnetic Waves
I Optics, A. K. Ghatak [OAKG]
I Chapter IX. Vibrations and Waves
A Wave

I def: A wave is a disturbance of a continuous medium that

propagates with a fixed shape at constant velocity.
I In one dimension, a wave is described by a function of space
and time, say,
f (z, t)
and can be thought to be the displacement of a rope that
you rhythmically shake up and down.
A Wave

I The temporal character, or motion of the wave implies,

f (z, t) = f (z − vt, 0)

I While its periodicity in space implies,

f (x + λ, t) = f (x, t)
where λ is the wavelength.
I Its periodicity in time implies,
f (x, t) = f (x, t + T )
where T = λ/v is the time period.
Sinusoidal Waves

f (z, t) = A cos(k(z − vt) + δ)

I Sinusoidal waves hold a priviledged position in the study of

waves as trigonometric functions are mathematically
well-studied.
I However, a wave does not necessarily have to be sinusoidal.
I Though, through Fourier analysis we can represent any
reasonably well-behaved function via its Fourier transform. So
any mathematically reasonable wave, can be broken up into an
appropriately weighted linear combination of sines and cosines.
Characterizing Sinusoidal Waves

f (z, t) = A cos(k(z − vt) + δ)

I A is the amplitude of the wave (it is assumed positive, and

represents the maximum displacement from the mean
position).
I v is its phase velocity, or the rate at which a fixed phase
point propogates forward in space.
I δ is the phase, which is defined to modulo 2π.
I k = 2π/λ is the wave number, or wave vector, where λ is
the wavelength.
I The period of the wave T = λv = 2π kv .
I The frequency ν = T1 .
Characterizing Sinusoidal Waves

f (z, t) = A cos(k(z − vt) + δ)

I f (z, t) = A cos(k(z − vt) + δ) is a wave travelling in the +z

direction1 .
I f (z, t) = A cos(k(z + vt) + δ) is a wave travelling in the −z
direction.

1
Convince yourself this is indeed true.
Dispersion

I Dispersion describes material behaviour in which some

material property, say, the phase velocity v is a function of
wavelength λ (or frequency ω), such that we have a
dependence v (λ).
I A familiar manifestation of dispersion is the separation of
white light into its constituents by a glass prism. This is
because the refractive index n depends on the
frequency/wavelength of the incident light.
I In general, all material properties, e.g., permittivity ,
permeability µ, and the conductivity σ depend on
frequency, and thus exhibit dispersion.
Group Velocity

Let’s imagine a wave packet a(x, t = 0), a linear combination of

sinusoidal waves various wavelengths λ but centered around2 λ0 .
We can Fourier decompose this wave packet into it’s spatial
frequency constituents e ikx as,
Z ∞
a(x, t = 0) = A(k)e ikx dk,
−∞

which is simply a sum of plane waves e ikx each with amplitude

A(k).

2
We are basically saying that the wavepacket is essentially monochromatic.
Group Velocity
I Now, let’s propagate these waves forward through time t. We
propagate each wave A(k)e ikx by a phase factor of e −iωt ,
Z ∞
a(x, t) = A(k)e ikx−ωt dk
−∞

I Expanding ω(k) in a Taylor series/Linearizing we get:

∂ω(k)
ω(k) ≈ ω0 + |k=k0 (k − k0 )
∂k

I This leads to rewriting the wave as,

Z ∞
∂ω(k)
ik0 x−ω0 t
a(x, t) = e dkA(k)e i(k−k0 )(x− ∂k t)
−∞

I e ik0 x−ω0 t describes a perfect monochromatic wave with

wavevector k0 that is moving with phase velocity ω0 /k0 within
the envelope of the wave packet.
Group Velocity
R∞ ∂ω(k)
i(k−k0 )(x− t)
−∞ dkA(k)e describes the envelope, i.e., the
I ∂k

movement of the wavepacket as a whole. As it depends

on the position and time only through the combination
(x − ∂ω(k)
∂k t), we can deduce that the group velocity vg of
the wave packet is,

∂ω(k)
vg =
∂k

I However, if we have a large frequency spread, or if the

dispersion ω(k) has resonances, or if the packet travels long
distances, this assumption is not valid, and the higher-order
terms become important.
I As a result, the envelope of the wave packet not only moves,
but also distorts, in a manner that can be described by the
2 ω(k)
material’s group velocity dispersion. (∼ ∂ ∂k 2 )
Maxwell’s Equations in Vacuum

I Given that in vacuum there is no charge ρ and therefore no

possibility of current, i.e., J = 0,
I Maxwell’s equations reduce to:

∇·E = 0,
∇·B = 0,
∂B
−∇ × E = ,
∂t
∂E
∇×B = µ0 0 ,
∂t

I The good news is that this set of equations

can be solved exactly for E , and B . . .
Deriving the Wave Equation

I Applying the curl operator i.e., ∇× to both Ampere-Maxwell,

and Faraday’s laws we get,
I

∂B
∇ × (∇ × E ) = ∇(∇ · E ) − ∇2 E = ∇ × (− )
∂t
∂ ∂2E
=− (∇ × B) = −µ0 2 ,
∂t ∂t
∂B
∇ × (∇ × B) = ∇(∇ · B) − ∇2 B = ∇ × (µ0 0 )
∂t
∂ ∂2B
=− (∇ × E ) = −µ0 0 2 .
∂t ∂t
Deriving the Wave Equation

I Using ∇ · E = 0 and ∇ · B = 0, we get,

I
∂2E
∇2 E = µ0 0
∂t 2
∂2B
∇2 B = µ0 0 2 .
∂t
which constitute second-order equations for both E and B,
but E and B have now been decoupled.
Deriving the Wave Equation

I Both these equations satisfy the three-dimensional wave

equation,
1 ∂2f
∇2 f = ,
v 2 ∂t 2
where v is the velocity of the wave.
I Electromagnetic waves travel with,
1
v=√ = 3 × 108 m s−1 ,
µ0 0

which is the speed of light c.

Properties of the Wave Equation
The three-dimensional wave equation,
1 ∂2f
∇2 f = ,
v 2 ∂t 2
is . . .
I Homogenous: i.e., if f1 is a solution, then

γf1 (γ ∈ C)
is guaranteed to also be a valid solution.
I Linear: Therefore, the sum of any two valid solutions is
guaranteed to be a valid solution: in physics this property is
called the superposition principle. i.e., if f1 and f2 are
solutions, then any linear combination thereof,
γ1 f1 + γ2 f2 (γi ∈ C)
is also a valid solution.
I The superposition principle implies the construction of a
wave-packet.
Solution to the Wave Equation in Vacuum

I Since an arbitrary wave-packet can be constructed by a

suitable superposition of plane-waves, we can try solutions
that are plane-waves travelling in the ẑ-direction3 ,
I
E (z, t) = E0 exp{i(kz − ωt)},
B(z, t) = B0 exp{i(kz − ωt)}.
where k = 2π
λ is the wavevector, and ω = 2πν is the angular
frequency.
I On invoking the condition that ∇ · E = 0 and ∇ · B = 0 we
find that,

3
Without loss of generality
Solution to the Wave Equation in Vacuum

I
(E0 )z = (B0 )z = 0,
showing that both the electric field and magnetic amplitudes
are transverse to the direction of wave propagation k̂.
I Invoking Faraday’s Law we can also see that E and B are in
phase and mutually ⊥.

(k × E0 )
B0 = .
ω

I Further, E and B are jointly ⊥ to the wave vector k.

Electromagnetic Spectrum in Vacuum
Electromagnetic Spectrum in Vacuum

I It’s important to get a feel for the numbers related to the

frequencies (wavelengths) of the various parts of the
electromagnetic spectrum (See Fig.20).
I For instance, visible radiation extends roughly from4
400 THz to 750 THz (400 nm to 800 nm).
I Given Planck’s relation E = hν for a photon, another
popular unit for describing the energy and the closely-related
frequency ν is the electron-Volt (eV ) which is obtained by
dividing the energy of the photon by the electronic charge e.
I e.g., red light corresponds to roughly 2 eV.

4
1 THz = 1012 Hz
Energy in Electromagnetic Waves in Vacuum
I The energy stored per unit volume in an electromagnetic field
ufield is given by the familiar expression,
1 1
ufield (z, t) = (0 | E |2 + | B |2 )
2 µ0

I For a monochromatic plane-wave the electric and magnetic

contributions to the EM field energy ufield , turn out to be
equal5 ,
1
| B |2 = | E |2 ,
c2
and so we get,
1
ufield = 2 × 0 | E |2 = 0 E02 cos2 (kz − ωt + δ).
2
5
Prove it.
Energy in Electromagnetic Waves in Vacuum

I The Poynting vector S that gives the energy flux/current

density, or energy per unit area, per unit time transported by
the fields is,

1
S= (E × B) = c0 E02 cos2 (kz − ωt + δ) = cufield ẑ.
µ0
Calculating Time-Averages
I Given that the frequency of visible light (600 THz) is much
higher than the time period of most macroscopic
measurements,
I . . . we are usually only interested in the time-average of the
quantities that derive from the fluctuating cosine term
cos2 (kz − ωt − δ).
I Using the mathematical fact that,
Z T
1 1
cos2 (kz − ωt − δ)dt = , (1)
T 0 2

we get the time-averaged energy stored per unit volume in the

EM field,
1
hufield i = h0 E02 cos2 (kz − ωt + δ)i = 0 E02
2
where the angular brackets hi indicate a time-average.
Calculating Time-Averages

I and the time-averaged Poynting vector is,

1
hSi = c0 E02 ẑ,
2
I The intensity or the average power per unit area transported
by an EM wave is given by,
1
I = hSi = 0 cE02 .
2
Linear Media

I In electromagnetic theory, linear media are described via the

constitutive relations,

D ≡ 0 E + P = 0 r E = E
1 1 1
H≡ B +M = B = B.
µ0 µ0 µr µ

I In isotropic media both  and µ are scalars, while in more

general, non-isotropic materials they are described as tensors.
Homogeneity: Macroscopic vs. Microscopic Fields

I We often model the material as homogenous, i.e., material

properties do not vary from point to point.
I Of course, real materials are granular, i.e., made of a
collection of atoms, and there is certainly a variation of
electron density n(r ), for example.
I For homogeneity to apply, the length scale of such a variation
(∼ nm) must be much smaller than the wavelength λ of the
EM field in question (∼ µm).
I This allows us to deal with only the relatively smoothly varying
macroscopic fields (∼ µm), vs. microscopic ones (∼ nm).
Linear Media
I For the linear, isotropic and homogenous6 case,

∇·E = 0, ∇·B = 0,
∂B
−∇ × E = ,
∂t
∂E
∇×B = µ .
∂t
I Thus, the velocity of wave propagation v becomes,
1 c
v=√ = ,
µ n
where n is the familiar refractive index of a material.
I The intensity of the EM wave in linear media becomes,
1 2
I = hSi = E
2v µ 0
6
The use of a dielectric constant, and/or permeability is only valid in the
homogenous case, where the fields referred to are macroscopic.