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Haul Road Design Guidelines - MiningInfo
Haul Road Design Guidelines - MiningInfo
Haul Road Design Guidelines - MiningInfo
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Haul Road Design Guidelines
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1 Stopping Distance
Mines 2 Sight Distance
Exploration Properties 3 Road Widths
Mining Technology 4 Crossfall
Sitemap
5 Superelevation
6 Gradient
Robofuel 7 Intersections
Automatically 8 Cross roads
Refuel Mining
Trucks.
Innovative
Surface mine haul roads are used for
Mining Site
transporting raw products from the mine
Technology, to the preparation plant, and waste dumps.
Every aspect of highway
engineering, including minimum slope
inclines, properly banked curves,
and adequate drainage, must be followed to
facilitate construction of safe
and efficient mine roads for fast and
economical transportation of the mined
product to its destination. By maintaining
good mine roads, both truck and
equipment maintenance will be kept to a
minimum, resulting in reduced
mining costs and subsequently higher
profits. Haul roads and ramps are the
lifeline of the open cut mine. Road design
must accommodate a number of factors
and expected weather conditions, the
largest vehicle on site and the speed of
operations are taken into account in the
design process.
Road parameters are limited by the largest
and usally least agile vehicle on site. Haul
trucks are usually the heaviest, slowest
and largest vehicle to traverse the roads on
site. The haul truck turning radius, braking
capacity and sheer size must be
considered in the design of any permanent
haul road. Permanent haul roads are
designed with these limiting factors in mind,
leaving a wide margin of safety for all other
mining equipment.
Design speeds are an important factor in
many of the different areas of design and
these vary around site. These speeds are
appropriately signed and are tabulated
below:
Typical Speed Limits on a Mine Site.
Area Speed Limit
Mining Area Surface 45 km/hr
Roads
Ramps 30 km/hr
Workshop 10 km/hr
Plant site and Admin 20 km/hr
In many cases the following design
parameters are also applicable to temporary
haul roads and light vehicle roads.
Stopping Distance
Stopping distance is the minimum distance
needed by a vehicle to stop, when travelling
at a design speed, to avoid an oncoming
hazard. The distance takes into account
driver reaction time, the retarding action
time delay for any vehicle and the time
taken for the vehicle to come a complete
stop. In each situation stopping distances
may vary according to the vehicle
concerned, the grade and the travelling
speed. As a result, designs are based on
those vehicles that have the lowest braking
capacity that will be using the particular
road and on the maximum speed limit on
the road.
Sight Distance
The sight distance is the distance
measured along the carriageway from a
driver to an object, or between two drivers
at specific heights above the carriageway,
occurring in the same lane of travel. Sight
distance is closely correlated with stopping
distance and in all instances, the distance
ahead of the driver to an unforeseen hazard
must alway be greater than the
distancerequired to bring the vehicle to a
stop. Sight distance is dictated by:
the design speed of the road
lowest vehicle using the road
the stopping distance of the largest
vehicle using the haul road in the
worst case driving conditions.
Sight distance is particularly important for
horizontal and vertical curves, and also at
intersections. In the case of a horizontal
curve, sight distance may be impeded by
steep rock cuts, trees or structures.
Vertical curves that are too sharp create
similar problems. Simple solutions such as
laying back rock cuts and smoothing of
crests increase the sight distance and
lengthen the operator reaction time. With
regard to intersections, optimising sight
distance for all incoming traffic is an
important consideration. At intersections,
batters, signs, windrows or other
obstructions may restrict the sight distance.
Where possible bends and intersections
shouldhave all sight restrictions removed or
minimised.
Road Widths
The width of any haul road is designed to
allow ample room for vehicles to
manoeuvre along the entire length of the
road. This basic design consideration
reduces safety risks and improves
operating efficiency.
Roadways that are too narrow create
uncomfortable driving conditions which, in
effect, slows traffic and increases
production cycle times. Inadequate
clearance between vehicles is a major
safety hazard. There are also risks of Straight DoubleLaned Road Dimensions
damage to the road shoulder and to tyres.
Specifications for road widths are intended
to eliminate these unnecessary risks.
Switchbacks or other areas of haul roads
requiring sharp curves must be widened to
take into account the overhang of the
vehicles and also a vehicle’s minimum
turning radius. The minimum negotiable
turning radius must be exceeded in all but
the most severe and restricting conditions.
Straight Sections
The following haul road traffic surface
widths are to be applied to straight sections
of all permanent and temporary haul roads.
Straight SingleLane Roads
Plan view of transitional cross slope into
This type of road is required to be a and out of superelevated corners
minimum of twice the width of the largest
vehicle (830E) using the road.
ie. 2 x 7.3m = 14.6 m
This does not include standard windrows on
either side of the road (2 x 5m). This width
is intended to prevent incapacitated
vehicles that may be stopped on the side of
the road from hindering the movements of
other vehicles.
Straight DoubleLane Roads
This type of road is required to be a
minimum width of 3.5 times the width of the
largest vehicle (830E) using the road.
ie. 3.5 x 7.3m = 25.6m
This does not include standard windrows on
either side of the road (2 x 5m). This width
allows vehicles to comfortably pass one
another or to pass stopped or incapacitated
vehicles on the roadside.
Curved Sections
The following haul road traffic surface
widths are to be applied to all curved
sections of permanent and temporary haul
roads (a factor of 1.18 has been included to
allow for the front and rear overhang of the
830E haul trucks):
SingleLane roads
2.0 x 1.18 x the width of the largest vehicle
using the road
ie. 2 x 1.18 x 7.3m = 17.3m
DoubleLane roads
3.5 x 1.18 x the width of the largest vehicle
using the road
ie. 3.5 x 1.18 x 7.3m = 30.2m Recommended Superelevation Rates
Turn Speed (km/hr)
Temporary Haul Roads and On Radius
Bench Haul Roads
(m) 16 24 32 40 48 56
Temporary haul roads and onbench roads
should be maintained at a minimum of the
30 7 15 27
3.5 x the width of the largest vehicle using
the road. If the road width is excessive, the
% % %
time spent grading and watering for dust
suppression is nonproductive and
45 4 10 18 28
expensive. Anything less than this
introduces safety risks and unnecessary
% % % %
production losses.
60 3 8 13 21 30
% % % % %
Crossfall
Crossfall is the difference in elevation 90 2 5 9 14 20 27
between the crest (crown) and the road % % % % % %
edge. It is a widely used technique that
effectively drains water from road surfaces
and is to be incorporated in all road 150 1 3 5 8 12 16
designs. Crossfall helps protect the road % % % % % %
pavement from damage by water by
reducing pooling of water, mud and
potholing. If water is allowed to accumulate 215 1 2 4 6 9 12
on the running surface, deterioration of the % % % % % %
subbase due to water saturation may
occur. If the subbase becomes exposed,
tyre damage may also occur 300 1 2 3 4 6 8
% % % % % %
The rate of crossfall depends on a number
of factors including the road gradient, the
road surface and the expected weather
conditions. From an operator’s point of
view, a level driving surface is most >10% Do not use
preferred because this requires the least
steering effort. However, to allow adequate
drainage, crossfall must be applied and so 5% to 10% Outside of Mine
the rate must accommodate both a rapid Design
removal of surface water and steerability.
Recommended rates of crossfall for <5% Preferred
roadways
6 10% 1% 1.5%
(maximum
grade)
The crossfall for doublelaned roads slopes
from the crown between the lanes, out to
the road edges`. Single lane roads slope
one way, the direction of which is
determined according to surrounding
topography. Crowns are not to extend
across intersections or around corners.
Superelevation
Superelevation is a technique employed at
Mine XYZ to assist vehicles in
manoeuvring safely around corners.
Superelevation is the banking of the road
surface at curves. It allows the vehicle
taking the corner to counteract centrifugal
forces towards the outside of the curve, by
directing the vehicle weight towards the
centre of radius of the curve. The amount of
superelevation on a corner is directly
related to the radius of the corner and the
desired vehicle speed through the corner.
The following table is a guide for providing
the superelevation necessary to reduce
lateral forces. 5% should be regarded as
the maximum superelevation. Curves
superelevated between 5% and 10% should
be used with caution. Curves superelevated
over 10% should not be used.
Superelevation is a particularly important
design consideration for switchbacks on pit
ramps at Mine XYZ. On such corners,
which typically have a small turn radius,
superelevation is extremely important. On
switchbacks that have the centre of the
curve located on the upside of the ramp, a
wellchosen superelevation rate prevents
material being spilled from laden trucks and
also improves the vehicular control.
As with changes in grade, transition into
and out of superelevated curves needs to
be smooth so that machinery can be eased
into corners. Superelevation runout lengths
depend on the crossfall change and the
design speeds. The larger the change in
road alignment, the longer the runout. At
Mine XYZ, runout lengths should be applied
so that onethird is in the curve and two
thirds are on the tangent. The following
table outlines the recommended lengths at
this mine site.
Recommended runout lengths
16 24 32 40 48 56
Vehicle
Speed
(km/hr)
0.08 0.08 0.08 0.07 0.06
0.05
Cross slope
change per
100m
pavement
(metre/metre)
To illustrate the use of this table, assume a
vehicle is travelling at 32 km/hr on a
tangent with a crossfall of 2% and is
approaching a switchback with
superelevation of 4% the opposite way. The
total cross slope change here is 6% and for
a vehicle travelling at this speed, the
recommended change is 0.08 per 100m. Intersection layouts
Thus the total runout length is 75 metres.
[(0.06 ¸ 0.08) x 100 = 75 m]
Gradient
The gradient on a ramp is the grade line
profile along the road centre line, in the
vertical plane. It is important to find a good
balance between low cycle times and
minimum wearing on machinery and tyres.
Excessively steep gradients reduce the
length of the haul road but require the use
of low gears for all types of vehicles. Not
only does this put more stress on
machinery, it also increase production cycle
times. Too gentle a grade requires more
excavation and construction for the longer
road, and the added travel distance means
cycle times are inefficient.
Road gradients are particularly important for
in pit roads, whether they be temporary or
permanent. Heavy haul trucks frequent
these roads and so the grades must
accommodate the braking limits and
stopping distances of such vehicles. The
brake performance of both the Komatsu
830E and 785C Caterpillar haul trucks have
been taken into account in the decision to
construct inpit haul roads at a maximum
grade of 10%. This specification allows
these trucks manage this grade on
unloaded descent and loaded ascent and is
also the best balance between production
cycles and wear on machinery. Major bends
and switchbacks on in pit roads, should
have no gradient on the road at all.
Any road is required to have smooth
transitions between straight sections of
road. The grade should be kept as constant
as possible to reduce the tendency of
trucks to change through gears on the up
grade hauls. This puts a large amount of
stress on the transmission of heavy
machinery and also effects production
cycle times, and operating and
maintenance costs.
The maximum sustained grades for
different types of roads are tabulated below:
Recommended Gradients
Road type Maximum
grade
7%
Permanent surface haul
roads
10%
Permanent in pit haul
roads
7%
Temporary surface haul
roads
10%
Temporary in pit haul
roads
10%
Onbench roads
20%
Light vehicle roads
0%
Major
bends/Switchbacks
Some temporary and light vehicle roads
may vary depending on the location and
circumstances.
Intersections
Interactions between heavy and light
vehicles on mine sites and the large
discrepancies between travelling speeds
and dimensions mean that there is an ever
present risk of collisions. Poorly designed
intersections in any area of the mine
enhance this risk and so it is extremely
important to find the best design in the
planning stages.
There are certain practices and numerous
intersection designs that have lead to
accidents in the past because major risk
and hazard were present. These are
obviously to be avoided wherever possible
and significant examples are:
Yjunctions where vehicles approach
the intersection at shallow angles
creating major visibility restrictions
particularly in the left hand drive haul
trucks.
T junctions at the crest of a hill or at
the bottom of a ramp. In the first
instance, the hillcrest reduces sight
distance for operators, and in the
latter, stopping distance is a problem
with vehicles having to stop at the
bottom of a descent.
Minor roads crossing over major
roads in a “+” formation. This creates
an avenue for high speed crossing
movements by light vehicles and an
increased risk of cross accidents.
The intersection of more than two
roads at one point. This has the
potential to create driver confusion
when it comes to selecting a
departure path. These intersections
need special traffic control devices
and a larger pavement area.
It is important for any intersection that
priority of the roads involved is determined
in the design stages so that when
conflicting traffic streams meet, one is
required to give way. A range of traffic
control devices such as stop signs, give
way signs or roundabouts, may establish
priority. All intersections will, in some form,
be signed to clearly indicate priority and this
will often be determined using the site
traffic rules for giving way.
It is also vital that adequate intersection
sight distance be incorporated into design
for a safe intersection. At intersections the
sight distance may be restricted by batters,
signs or other obstructions. Consideration
should be given to the height of windrows
and median strips, placement of sign
posting and the proximity of nearby crests,
corners and intersections. Along with these
factors, a minimum of 20m of flat road
leading into any intersection will give
drivers enough distance to sight the
intersection and road furniture, and to slow
to a speed that allows them to negotiate the
intersection safely. A flat section of road
also allows vehicles on a major road to
sight an approaching vehicle from a minor
road so action to avoid a collision can be
taken if the need arises.
Particular attention must also be paid to
drainage at intersections. Intersections are
usually the most frequently used sections
of road and so drainage is vital to help
maintain surface integrity for such heavy
use areas.
There are several standard intersection
designs in use at Mine XYZ and the design
considerations for these follow.
Cross roads
Cross roads are to be avoided if possible
unless it is the intent to purposely slow or
stop traffic approaching a “main” road.
Where cross roads are used, the
intersections should be at 90° creating a
square orientation. Roads intersecting
major haul roads in this way are to have a
flat area of a minimum 20m prior to the
intersection to ensure adequate sight
distance for all vehicles.
All approach roads shall be divided down
the road centre using median strips, which
are to be at least 5m long. Keep left signs
at either end will indicate to operators the
correct direction of travel. One road shall be
given priority and the other road marked
with stop signs.
Skewed cross roads
To avoid the increased risks associated
with a minor road crossing a major road,
skewed cross roads are used. This
treatment places the minor road in a
staggered geometry preventing high speed
crossing movements and cross accidents,
which are more prevalent in areas where
light vehicles operate.
Roads should intersect at 90° and are to
have a minimum of 20 m of flat road on
approach to the intersection. The minor
road is to have stop signs on approach. The
minor road shall be divided down its centre
using traffic islands, which are to be at
least 5m long. Keep left signs at either end
will indicate to operators the correct
direction of travel.
Where possible the intersection should be
orientated so that a vehicle crossing the
major road makes a right turn and then a
left turn through the intersection. This
prevents vehicles lining up in the centre of
a road to turn right. This geometry is
demonstrated in figure 5.1.
Tintersections
Tintersections are a relatively safe and
simple type of intersection to have in the
road network. Priority is given to through
traffic with the intersecting road marked
with a stop sign or giveway sign. The
determination of the traffic control sign to
be used is at the discretion of the Mine
Development Superintendent.
The roads should meet at 90°. The
terminating road should be divided in the
centre of the road by a traffic island, which
is to be a minimum of 5m long. Keep left
signs at either end will indicate to operators
the correct direction of travel.
Roundabouts
Roundabouts should regulate the
intersection of no more than two roads
wherever possible. All roads are given the
same level of priority and traffic is to give
way to the right. This will be shown with
roundabout give way signs placed on all
approaches to the intersection. Roads
should intersect at 90°. Major roads joining
a roundabout will be divided down their
centre line by a traffic island at least 5m
long. Keep left signs, placed at either end
will indicate correct direction of travel.
Three or four truck tyres painted white and
laid on their sides will form the main
structure of the roundabout. This is a large
enough obstacle for vehicles to have to
slow down to negotiate and their width will
not hinder sight distances.
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