Answer:

Bridges:
A bridge is a structure built to cross a physical obstacle, such as a body of water, valley, or
highway, without closing the path below. It is built to provide a step over the obstacle, usually something
that can be detrimental to crossing in another way. Many different designs serve a particular purpose and
apply to different situations. Bridge designs vary depending on the function of the bridge, the nature of the
land on which the bridge is built and anchored, the material used to manufacture it, and the funds available
to build it.
Most likely, the earliest bridges were fallen trees and steps, while the Neolithic built
wooden bridges in the swamps. The Arkadiko Bridge dating from the 13th century BC. C., in the
Peloponnese, in southern Greece, it is one of the oldest arch bridges that still exist and are used.
Highway-rail bridges are bridges shared by roads and rail lines. The road and rail can be
segregated so that trains can operate at the same time as cars (for example, the Sydney Harbor Bridge). The
train track can be above the road or vice versa with lattice bridges. The road and rail can share the same
roadway, so road traffic must stop when trains operate (such as a level crossing) or operate together as a
streetcar on a street (circulating street).
Highway-rail bridges are sometimes called combination bridges.
HISTORY
In the middle of the 20th century, it became clear that the old railway bridge could not
serve all traffic. In 1971, the new Belgrade crossing project received the green light. He was considering a
new bridge, which would make a direct link between the new Belgrade station and the planned central
station, Prokop. Although the construction of the Makiš maneuvering site was attempted first, it was the
bridge that was completed before the site, as it was a more important object for the entire planned crossing.
The municipal council voted for its construction approximately 250 m (820 ft) from the
old railway bridge. Construction of the bridge began in 1975. It was designed by Nikola Hajdin, engineer
and future president of the Serbian Academy of Sciences and Arts, and Ljubomir Jeftović. It was decided
to use the beam system, which until then had only been used for road bridges, not for railways.
Construction has slowed due to building problems in the Senjak district, where the bridge
would touch the ground on the right bank of the Sava. The emptying and removal of buildings around the
Senjak market took longer than expected. Placement of the bridge construction was completed in August
1978, followed by painting and corrosion protection. The bridge, built by the company Mostogradnja, was
completed and opened to traffic in 1979.
Before 1900, railways were mainly built by hand. Construction bridges, timber and cast
iron bridges are gradually being built. Long stretches of waterways were floated on the rafts and elevated
using hydraulic presses. When wooden and cast iron bridges became unsuitable, they were replaced by
wrought iron, then by steel or concrete. The speed of construction was vital once the railways went into
service, requiring work on track property, and this has affected construction roads from now on. Vapor
breakers have appeared since 1875 and were quickly used to build bridges. The crane bridging capabilities
have also been integrated into larger items. The adoption of 1000-ton mobile road welding in the 1990s
helped to adopt welding to replace the fixation and expansion of the use of concrete in superstructures after
1945. The "roll" of pre-assembled extensions as well as the rails have been developed to reduce acquisition
times. Beginning in the 1980s, transportation companies were created to install full shifts, thereby
eliminating temporary work. The infrastructure under powered tracks has traditionally been built in
cofferdams spanning road beams, but from the 1960s, the techniques of lifting tubes were adapted to form
such sub-structures. Foundations stacked on either side of the railways were increasingly adopted, and from
the 1970s, the bridges or caissons of the integrated entry frame were installed by sliding, with conveyors,
by lifting or pulling in open section.

Design:
Purpose of Bridge and Structural design:
Design Considerations
Designed to resist load combinations, at all stages during the life of the structure,
including those during construction.

 Equilibrium and strain compatibility shall be maintained in the analysis.

 The effects of imposed deformations due to shrinkage, temperature change, creep, pre-stressing,
and movements of supports shall be investigated.

Bridge structural design considerations

Except for larger bridges, most road structures are designed one year old often begins to
reach her useful life at around 30 years old. While this is usually a result of increased traffic or higher
security standards, Ability to undertake major road repairs or upgrades via turning off the bridge in general
is not a major concern. Rail-road Bridges, on the contrary, were designed to have a much longer service
life, and A large number of railway structures are in service today A hundred years .Bypass methods
resulting from failure or major repair / maintenance efforts Expensive and may not be viable. Although the
design standards within AREMA reflect this should be a consideration, impact and operating costs consider
replacing the current structure. It is often the designer the proposed design solution rejected by the railways
for this reason. Although the solution widely accepted offer in highway design, required permanence the
rail environment has not yet been proven for the railways. Rail structures require much greater consideration
of longitudinal load a typical road bridge. This is the result of two environmental variables. The cars
Individual loads of rail cars are several times higher than on road vehicles. Likewise, unlike roads, the
rolling surface of a vehicle (rail) continues between Bridge structure and adjacent platform. The structure
of the path, by its nature, is fairly flexible, loads are distributed in all directions along the path. The Fixed
object entry (e.g. end of bridge) this load focuses on Distribution points. When comparing railroad bridges
to roads, pedestrians, and other bridges, the direct load compared to dead load is much larger and more
consistent. This is Constant loading and unloading over a wider range of pressures leads to fatigue.
More common considerations in designing railway bridges than other types.
Bridge Loading
When designing a structure, the designer must consider different types of loads. Including but not limited
to own load, payload, and wind, weather conditions (snow, ice, etc.), Earthquake or a combination thereof.
Like the other applicable codes and designs organizations such as ACI, AISC and AASHTO, AREMA sets
guidelines for both the permissible stress for steel and wood as well as the load factor construction
guidelines for use in structural engineering rail loading. Many of these guidelines are inherently consistent,
if not identical to other codes. However, there are many differences that are the result of the different service
requirements of the railway structures as well as the railway practice or preference developed over the past
150 years. The designer should be aware that each chapter is effectively independent others, and not all,
treat similar design considerations in the same way. If a single structure can contain several different types
of material (e.g. a Composite construction with steel girders and concrete deck), chapters 8 and 15 must be
referenced throughout the design process. Some other chapters of the AREMA manual for railway
technology can refer to one of the structural chapters solve structural problems.
Dead Load
The dead weight consists of the estimated weight of the structural elements plus that of
Tracks, ballast and other railway attachments (signal, electricity, etc.) supported by the structure. The
weight of the track material (rails, railings, mounting plates, spikes and rail clips) are taken as 200 pounds
per foot of linear track. The ballast is assumed to be 120 lb per cubic foot. Treated wood is believed to
weigh 60 pounds per cubic foot. The sealing weight is the actual weight. The designer must provide ballast
depth for future or surface heights (usually 8 "- 12"). On ballast bridge bridges are assumed to have ballast
filled the section of the platform to the top no reduction was made in the volume that the tie would contain.
Composite Design
The construction and use of steel and concrete composite spans for railway bridges
discussed in Chapter 15 Section 5.1 of the AREMA Railways Manual engineering. This type of structure
includes a steel beam or beam and ac concrete floor slab. The connection between the two materials is
designed and built to transmit sufficient shear force so that the two materials behave like a single integrated
unit under load. The theory of composite design that governs AREMA's recommendations the manual for
railway construction is very similar to that in the work restriction in AASHTO and permissible loading
methods in various building regulations. A part of important questions are: Selection of the effective width
of the concrete flange according to the slab thickness, distance of the steel beams or length of the span;
Determination of the section according to the moment of inertia method;
Application of self-loading forces to the non-assembled or assembled section ,according to
sequencing and construction methods; Taking into account the impact of creep due to long-term own loads
Composite profile the shear connectors can be steel channels or bolts welded to the top flange made of steel
and embedded in the concrete deck.
One problem that has to be solved with the composite construction is the size of the load
resisted. Although not specifically dealt with in the AREMA rail manual
Railway companies generally require steel girders or girders proportionately without
contributing to the concrete deck slab, a payload with a slightly reduced amplitude compared to the entire
structure. For example, a bridge with a composite design load of E-80 is often required only the steel profile
provides support for an E-60 or higher, and possibly even an E-80 depending on the railway and the type
of structure under consideration. This guarantees
If the concrete deck is damaged during a derailment, the steel profile is sufficient to
transport the rail traffic, even if concrete has to be demolished and an open bridge Installed. If steel is
designed solely for the nominal load, costs can be saved through the efficient use of steel Materials are a
little less for railway structures than for highways and buildings structures that take full advantage of the
composite section to withstand the payload and impact.
The limitation of the deflection due to the payload plus impact can generally also be
dispensed with if you only consider the steel for the design of railway bridges. The full composite section
should be designed to be sufficiently rigid to meet the deflection restrictions. Even if the steel profile is
sufficient to bear the final structural load without contribution of the concrete slab, composite effect still
has to be examined. The neutral axis of the composite cross section is higher in cross section than that for
the unassembled section. This increases the tension range in the material below the neutral axis and fatigue
details should be checked for this enlarged area while composite steel and concrete spans offer a rigid
design with the advantages of a they are unlikely to be used to replace existing structures existing
alignments. The extra time is compared to precast concrete required to shape, place and harden the in-situ
concrete deck of a composite span requires offline design to minimize the impact on rail traffic. Parallel
one of these is the construction of a composite span with a lateral curl during a draft-free window way to
work around this problem. In addition, the top concrete is not under compression by preloading or
preloading, using a sealing system this can be justified to protect the deck. If the structure depth is limited
by vertical distances below the structure, a steel plate can be used instead of a concrete deck. The steel plate
may or may not be included the bar design, depending on the connection to the bar.
Bridge Design Assumptions and Constructability Issues
When planning railway structures, it is imperative to take into account the factors
frequently control design and construction. Many in the rail industry would agree, that the determining
factor of design and construction is the track time. Operations are essential, and with higher traffic demands
on an aging infrastructure, the tracking time is one premium. It is important for railways to balance
operating time, maintenance / repair and new construction. The designer is challenged to produce plans and
specifications that will give the best structure in the shortest possible time. Many times the efficiency of the
design is sacrificed for a shorter construction period. Let’s briefly consider a simple scenario: replacing the
superstructure of a short bridge. In almost 100 years, the steel superstructure has been lifted while being
converted from a ballasted bridge to an open bridge. This conversion included the use of what's called a
wire mesh. A wire mesh (also known as a crib) is a temporary steel support, usually in the form of short
sections of welded steel H-piles side by side to form a shallow landing seat (1 to 2 feet). The steel is then
covered with concrete. This technique is the most common for rehabilitation projects. When replacing this
superstructure, the most efficient design could include cutting the rear wall, removing the wire mesh (thus
lowering the beam seat)
Classification of Bridges –Basis
 Utilization and Purpose
 Topography and Location
 Overall Geometry
 Structural System and Framing
 Fabrication/ Construction Method
 Structural Material

Classification of Bridges:
 Utilization and Purpose
1) Highway
2) Railway
3) Pedestrian
4) Aqueducts
5) Canal
6) Pipeline etc

 Overall Geometry
1) Straight
2) Curved
 3) Skew

 Topography and Location

1) River
2) Valley
3) Elevated
4) Fly-over etc.

 Fabrication/ Construction Method

1) In-situ concrete bridges
2) Pre-cast concrete bridges
3) Cantilever construction
4) Incrementally Launched

 Structural Material
 Beam
 Arch
 Frame Bridges

 Beam
1) Simply Supported
2) Continuous

 Arch
1) Poly-arch
2) Fixed arch, hinged arch
3) Tied Arch

 Frame Bridges
1) Slant leg bridges
2) V-bridges
3) Cable stayed bridge
4) Suspension bridges
5) Inverted suspension bridges
6) Stressed Deck Bridge

Based on Structural Material

 Stone bridges
 RC bridges
 Pre-stressed Concrete
 Pre tensioned
 Post tensioned
1) Internal/ External
2) Bonded/Unbounded
 Steel
 Wood
 Composite (steel girder + RC deck)