European Journal of Training and Development

Professional training as a strategy for staff development: A study in training transfer in

the Lebanese context
Khalil M. Dirani
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EJTD
36,2/3
158
Received 19 April 2011
Revised 1 October 2011
Accepted 7 December 2011
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European Journal of Training and
Development
Vol. 36 No. 2/3, 2012
pp. 158-178
q Emerald Group Publishing Limited
2046-9012
DOI 10.1108/03090591211204698
The current issue and full text archive of this journal is available at
www.emeraldinsight.com/2046-9012.htm
Professional training as a strategy
for staff development
A study in training transfer in the Lebanese
context
Khalil M. Dirani
Adult Education and Human Resource and Organization Development Program,
Department of Lifelong Education, Administration and Policy,
University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia, USA
Abstract
Purpose – Research studies on training-job relevance continuously discuss the extent of transfer
being found limited. This study aims to focus on exploring trainees’ perceptions about the effects of a
“Western” professional training program on their skill development and how cultural factors specific
to Lebanon influence the learning.
Design/methodology/approach – This research adopted a mixed method study design. It was
conducted in the context of a training services program offered by an HRD department in a large
Lebanese financial institution. The sample frame consisted of service employees who were
conveniently selected after enrolling in the professional training program. The sample was composed
of 120 participants. A total number of 107 questionnaires were completed and 101 questionnaires were
usable (82.5 percent response rate). Analysis of the quantitative data was through descriptive
statistics. Qualitative data collection was included to corroborate the quantitative data in answering
the research questions. The researcher conducted 15 interviews with participants and stakeholders in
the training program to get their perceptions of how well the training workshops were helping them
develop new skills.
Findings – This study yielded a broad perspective on issues related to formal training and training
transfer in the Lebanese context. The issues explored are related to trainees’ attitudes towards the
training activities they were exposed to, their perceptions of the impact of training activities on their
career development, and their attitudes towards work environment that might predict the transfer of
training.
Practical implications – While professional training programs may lead to motivating trainees to
become more committed to work, and enhancing learning skills relevant to individual career
development and life-long learning, such trainings fail to tackle problems specific to a trainee’s
organizational or cultural needs. In particular, it is often hard to integrate generic training ideas into
specific workplace settings.
Originality/value – This paper provides original information on a topic that is not well researched
in the Lebanese context. It identifies needs and offers practical help to HRD practitioners and
international consultants, and provides theoretical insights to HRD scholars to better understand the
field of HRD in international contexts.
Keywords Professional training programmes, Training transfer, Work environment, Lebanon,
Working conditions, Training
Paper type Research paper
Human resource development (HRD) literature suggests that investments in training
and development (T&D) are associated with a range of individual and organizational
benefits (Buckley and Caple, 2007). HRD and management practitioners utilize formal
 training as a vital and comprehensive component in individual and organizational Professional
development (Noe et al., 2006; Keep, 1989; Prais, 1995; Swanson, 1995). The goal training
usually is set by the organization to enhance individual productivity and
competitiveness (Lang and Wittig-Berman, 2000) and to facilitate employees’
learning and work-related competencies and skills (Cascio, 2000; Noe et al., 2006).
Companies all over the world have spent billions of dollars on professional training.
In the US, companies have spent more than $50 billion annually on formal training 159
(Dolezalek, 2004). As a return on investment, companies expect that training efforts
lead to desired direct outcomes such as increased job performance and indirect
work-related outcomes such as increased employee satisfaction, retention, and
decreased absenteeism. To reach such outcomes, transfer of training should take place
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(Holton, 2005). By and large, trainees are unable to retain the information learned, or
they lack motivation to transfer information gained in the training program back to
work (Velada and Caetano, 2007).
For this work, professional training means formal learning and support activities
and initiatives designed to provide organizations the opportunity to prepare and
develop their employees. These opportunities, when transfer occurs, usually lead to
improvements in the knowledge, skills, practices, and dispositions of the trainees.
Transfer of training is the process by which knowledge, skills, practices learned during
training are displayed in the work setting (Russ-Eft et al., 2010). Blume et al. (2010)
presented a meta-analysis on training transfer and explored the impact of predictive
factors, such as trainee characteristics, work environment, and training interventions
on transfer of training to different tasks and contexts. They found significant positive
relationships between transfer and predictors such as cognitive ability,
conscientiousness, motivation, and support of work environment.
Organizations struggle tremendously with transfer of training. In a perfect
situation, employees learn and transfer all acquired knowledge and skills to their jobs.
In reality, researchers have estimated that approximately 40 percent of training content
is usually transferred immediately following training, 25 percent is retained after six
months and only ten to 15 percent after one year (Baldwin and Ford, 1988; Wexley and
Latham, 2002). This indicates that time, money, and resources invested in training
result only in a small percentage of the training transferability to the workplace
(Velada and Caetano, 2007). Thus, smart employers provide trainees with
opportunities to learn and retain new job-related competencies (Velada and Caetano,
2007) that lead to behavioral change in knowledge and skills (Weiss, 1990) and allows
them to transfer the new learning to the work context with the intention of improving
job performance over time (Noe et al., 2006).
Outside the USA, there has been an emphasis on the development of generic skills
that, by definition, apply to a multiplicity of workplaces (Cheng and Hampson, 2008).
The number of publications addressing training transfer has increased since Baldwin
and Ford published their theoretical framework in 1988. Yet, there is still a lack of
studies in the Middle East, in general, and in Lebanon, in specific, explaining whether
Western models of training transfer are applicable in the Lebanese context and how
transfer can be optimized (Hawley and Barnard, 2005; Holton and Baldwin, 2000). This
study aims at closing this gap and testing existing factors of training transfer, as well
as discovering crucial influencing factors in the transfer process of generic skills
training in the Lebanese context.
 EJTD Researchers and practitioners alike have focused their attention to understanding
36,2/3 and improving the transfer of training process. Several scholars provided conceptual
models in an attempt to understand this complex process (Baldwin and Ford, 1988;
Holton, 1996, 2005; Kavanagh, 1998; Tracey et al., 1995). Kavanagh (1998) provided a
list of that influence training transfer including individual, supervisor, peers, and
organizational factors. Other researchers identified different events and activities in
160 the training process including pre-training events (Baldwin and Magjuka, 1991),
training activities (Noe et al., 2006), and post-training activities (Baldwin and Ford,
1988; Orpen, 1999) along with transfer motivation (Holton, 1996, 2005). Those scholars
believed that such events and activities highly correlate to the effectiveness of a
training program. Baldwin and Ford (1988) and Holton (1996, 2005) provided a
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framework with three main determinants of training transfer:

(1) training design or enabling factors;
(2) individual factors or trainee characteristics; and
(3) work environment or transfer climate.

The purpose of this study is to understand whether the framework provided by

Baldwin and Ford (1988), and Holton (1996, 2005) holds true in the Lebanese context. In
other words, this study tests the effect of three training determinants, training design,
trainee characteristics, and work environment, on the transfer of training and whether
other factors might play a role in training transfer in the context of a large Lebanese
Organization. Figure 1 provides a diagram of the three determinants of training
transfer.
The following section provides an overview of the literature regarding the influence
of training design, individual characteristics and work environment on transfer of
training. It ends with an overview on professional training the Lebanese Context.

Factors influencing training transfer

The ability to learn and to convert learning into practice creates extraordinary value
for individuals, teams and organizations (Ashton and Green, 1996). One way to learn is
through formal training. Interest in training and learning is associated with purposes
related to organizational and individual change. First, training leads to organizational
development and growth through contribution to production, effectiveness, and
innovation (Lang and Wittig-Berman, 2000). Second, it contributes to acquiring new
knowledge, skills, and capacity to further own learning both as employees and citizens

Figure 1.
Factors affecting transfer
of training
 (Barrie and Pace, 1998; Dirkx, 1997). But for change to happen, training transfer should Professional
take place. A review of the literature provides evidence that training alone is necessary training
but not sufficient to result in positive job performance or related changes. Research
studies on training and training transfer have identified many factors to have influence
on trainees learning and on the transfer of new acquired competencies to their work
environment (Baldwin and Ford, 1988; Holton and Baldwin, 2000; Montesino, 2002).
What follows is an overview of the different variables related to training design, 161
trainee characteristics, and work environment that influence training and training
transfer (Holton, 2005).
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Training design
In wanting workers to perform new tasks, become more effective, and replace outdated
work habits, organizational leaders often send their employees to participate in
training programs (Noe et al., 2006). Professional training programs are primary
training tools for achieving organizational goals. Following the principles systems
theory (Rummler and Brache, 1995), a professional training program would act as
independent system, with a primary role of supporting its own existence. However, the
same program would be considered a subsystem with regard to the different
organizations it is serving. This subsystem has a role of supporting the goals of the
overall system (Cummings and Worley, 2009).
Training programs are central to the success of transfer of learning. They should be
designed and delivered in such a way that provides trainees the ability to transfer
learning back to the job (Holton et al., 2000; Velada and Caetano, 2007). Holton (2005)
argued that trainees are more likely to transfer the training content to the work context
when they perceive that the training program was designed and delivered in such a
way that maximizes the trainee’s ability to transfer the training to the job.
Several training design factors influence transfer of training. Instructional
techniques and learning principles are critical factors (Alvarez et al., 2004). Holton
et al. (2000) argue that the degree to which training instructions match job
requirements plays a significant role in the success of learning transfer to the job. In
addition, organizational and national cultures need to be addressed. Other factors
include goal setting, self-directed learning, and strategies for retaining new learning
(Tziner et al., 1991). Thus, organizations should design their training programs to
include such factors that increase the likelihood of transfer. Consequently, transfer of
training is most likely to happen when trainees understand how to apply the newly
learned knowledge and skills at work.

Effective workshops
Contrary to the practitioners’ myth of engaging learners with interesting activities,
research shows that participants most satisfied with a program are not necessarily
those who learned the most (Holton et al., 2000; Velada and Caetano, 2007). Training
outcomes are more likely to have a positive effect on employee attitudes where training
designs are structured and related to employees work (Heyes and Stuart, 1996). Thus,
the impact of training provision on performance outcomes is dependent on how and in
whose interest skills are developed at the workshop and deployed at the workplace.
 EJTD Simple exposure versus deliberate practice
36,2/3 While training activities may form part of individual learning, the process of learning
never formally starts or stops (Watkins and Marsick, 2003). Some training may make
very little difference to the perspective of the individual whereas more significant
learning may lead to a re-conceptualization of the individual’s assumptions and values.
These kinds of learning could be categorized as single-loop and double- loop learning
162 (Argyris and Schon, 1978; Senge, 1990). This sense-making process is strongly
influenced by practice (Watkins and Marsick, 2003). The HRD literature makes an
important distinction between exposure and deliberate practice (Alvarez et al., 2004).
Individuals need exposure to a large enough set of case experiences to begin
developing a reliable repertoire of principles and a valid conceptual understanding of
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what they are experiencing. Simple exposure to an area does not suffice. Rather
individuals need to undergo extended periods of active learning to reach exceptional
levels of performance (Ericsson and Charness, 1994).

Individual characteristics
Keep (1989) argues that training investment constitutes a powerful signaling device to
reassure employees that they are valued by their employers, which in turn enhances
employee motivation and commitment to the organization. In addition, Keep suggests
that social and political processes at the level of the workplace shape the distinction
between skill acquisition and skill development, a distinction conventionally referred
to as the problem of transfer of training (see also Russ-Eft, 2002). A wide variety of
trainee characteristics are likely to impact the effectiveness of training. Noe (1986)
identifies personality and motivational factors and develops an expectancy model that
hypothesizes the process by which trainees’ attitudes concerning their jobs and careers
and their perception of the work environment influence training outcomes. There are
several individual characteristics that affect the transfer of training process. Some of
these characteristics include cognitive ability, conscientiousness, achievement
motivation, motivation to learn and to transfer, anxiety, and self-efficacy (Colquitt
et al., 2000). Argyris and Schon (1978) explain that learning embraces cognition;
thought, insight or detection, and action behavior or correction. Holton (2005) suggests
that training workshops can heighten individuals’ motivation to develop different
capabilities and facilitate the development of skills needed to build these capabilities.
Other factors include job involvement, organizational commitment, and job
satisfaction (Velada and Caetano, 2007). In addition, trainees must have the ability
to retain the knowledge instilled during the training program to facilitate the transfer
process.

Trainees background
Work settings nowadays demand flexibility, communication skills, and teamwork.
However, helping trainees to achieve these goals is complicated by the fact that
trainees come from different background environments, and bring to the training their
individual values and beliefs, and their personal experiences to bear, share, reflect and
learn while simultaneously working together on a challenging yet unfamiliar task
(Cogner, 1992). This suggests that training programs should take into consideration
trainees’ backgrounds and all their cultural and personal assumptions. And should
 focus on finding new ways to encourage trainees to think creatively and feed their Professional
thoughts back into the organization (Montesino, 2002). training
Learning styles
Adult learning theory suggests that individuals differ in their learning styles. There
are numerous ways by which we learn. Multiple instructional techniques increase the
likelihood that at least one, if not several, methods will be compatible with an 163
individual’s style (Merriam and Brockett, 1997). Multiple learning methods are
essential to a well-designed program (Noe et al., 2006). They can contribute to helping
learners seek out developmental experiences after the training has ended (Holton, 2005;
Russ-Eft, 2002). Dirkx (1997) argued that learning occurs when the learner creates or
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re-organizes concepts, frameworks, and capabilities as a result of linking new and

existing knowledge. Knowles’ andragogy (Knowles, 1970) suggests that adult learners
are concerned with the learning process within the context of the learning purpose and
situation (see also Knowles et al., 1998).

Work environment
In contrast to the normative HRD training interventions, research studies suggest that
work environment affects the transfer of training and employees’ decisions to apply
what they learned at training interventions (Baldwin and Ford, 1988; Tracey and
Tews, 2005). HRD literature had devoted little empirical attention to capturing the
effect of work environment on training transfer (Alvarez et al., 2004). Lance et al. (2002)
have shown that environmental factors are important for understanding the transfer of
training process.
Work environment includes three dimensions with regard to transfer of training
including organizational culture, supervisor support and peer support (Baldwin and
Ford, 1988; Tracey et al., 1995). For organizational culture, it significantly impacts both
transfer of training and post-training behaviors. Researchers found that a learning
culture is highly correlated with performance feedback, peer support, and supervisor
support (Baldwin and Ford, 1988; Holton et al., 2000; Tracey and Tews, 2005).
Watkins and Marsick (2003) provided a framework with seven dimensions to
measure a learning culture. These dimensions include continuous learning,
empowerment, peer collaboration and learning, embedded systems, systems
connections, dialogue and inquiry, and providing leadership. Based on the seven
dimensions, Watkins and Marsick (2003) developed an instrument called the
Dimensions of the Learning Organization Questionnaire (DLOQ) to capture the
learning culture within organizations. Research has linked organizational culture to
transfer of training. Employees are more likely to apply their new knowledge and skills
on the job when the work culture is more conducive to learning (Baldwin and Ford,
1988; Watkins and Marsick, 2003). As for supervisor and peer support, these
dimensions are important dimensions of the work environment. These dimensions can
be defined as the extent to which supervisors and peers support and reinforce the use
of newly learned knowledge and skills on the job (Holton et al., 2000). Researchers
found that when trainees perceive that their supervisors and peers support the
application of newly developed knowledge and skills, they are more likely to transfer
these competencies back to the job (Bates, 2003; Colquitt et al., 2000; Noe, 1986; Tracey
and Tews, 2005).
 EJTD Lebanese context
36,2/3 Contributions on the theme of transfer of training models from the more developed
countries to other countries have raised several important and complex issues for both
trainers and participants. These issues are related to the transfer processes and to the
assumptions and values upon which these processes rely (Holden and Cooper, 1994;
Lang and Steger, 2002). Hofstede (1993) suggested that theories, models and practices
164 are typically developed in particular countries and are usually infused with the
distinctive characteristics of that culture.
A major aim of this study is to determine whether theoretical explanations of the
transfer of training primarily developed in the West generalize to Middle Eastern
settings. It is well documented that values, behaviors, organizational culture, among
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other contextual factors, influence work outcomes and vary significantly from one
country to another (Dirani, 2007). Lebanon is a stratified society that has been labeled
as a “Middle Eastern” or collectivist culture (Hofstede, 1993). Over the last 30 years, the
Lebanese society has been steadily adopting a Western style in both family and work
values (Dirani, 2007).
In organizational settings, deference is paid more to those who are deemed worthy
and have better social status (Jabbra, 1989). In a study of Lebanese students and
service employees, Dirani (2007) found that individuals tended to be more
individualistic in their choices. Dirani suggested that the Lebanese society was
moving towards a more Westernized individualistic society.
Reports on workforce development and performance improvement in Lebanon have
been mostly limited to labor economics and macro level human development (Dirani,
2006). Although efforts to improve HRD practices in the workplace have been stressed
by organizational leaders in recent years, HRD in Lebanon is mainly equated within
organizations with the short-term, ad hoc training of employees.
The above review of the literature proved that measuring the effectiveness of
training is very complex. Thus the purpose of this study is to have a better
understanding of the impact of formal training determinants on training retention and
transfer in the Lebanese context. The research questions guiding this study are:
.
What are trainees’ attitudes toward the training activities they were involved in?
.
What are trainees’ perceptions of the impact of the training activities on their
career development?
.
What are trainees’ perceptions of work environment factors that might predict
training transfer?
.
What other factors, if any, trainees might perceive to affect training transfer?

Methodology
Organizational context of the program
This research adopted a mixed method study design. It was conducted in the context of
a training services program offered by an HRD department in a large Lebanese
financial institution. The training program is referred to as Basics program. This
program provided training and development opportunities for staff members and
aimed at improving productivity, increasing effectiveness, polishing performance and
fulfilling personal goals. Some of the workshops offered in the program contributed
toward the completion of a non-degree certificate in professional development. A key
 component of this program was its emphasis on training and development activities in Professional
the form of one-day off-the job workshops that aim to impact on-the-job performance.
Thus, the program provided an ideal case for examining issues related to formal
training
training effectiveness and transfer.

Population and sample characteristics

The population for this study comprised all service employees of a major financial 165
institution in Lebanon and their managers. The general responsibilities for service
employees include: Customer service, loans, and product marketing and sales. The
sample frame consisted of service employees who were conveniently selected after
enrolling in the professional training program. The sample was composed of 120
participants.
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Measures used
The research utilized both quantitative and qualitative data collection techniques.
Quantitative procedures were used to:
.
assess the immediate training outcomes in terms of the adoption of new practices
(i.e. transfer);
.
measure the work environment using Watkins and Marsick’s (2003) learning
organization culture DLOQ; and
.
measure employees’ commitment to their organization as related to training
transfer using Mowday et al. (1979) organizational commitment questionnaire
(OCC).
To this end, a five-section questionnaire was designed to gather data on the following
issues:
(1) trainees’ perceptions on training activities and training outcomes;
(2) trainees’ satisfaction with instructors and training activities;
(3) work environment factors (DLOQ);
(4) employee commitment in relation to training transfer (OCC); and
(5) demographic questions.

The first four sections included 65 Likert-type items. For example, one of the items
asked trainees to rate their satisfaction with the training goals on a five-point Likert
scale (1 ¼ Highly unsatisfied, 5 ¼ Highly satisfied). The demographics section
included seven questions.
Content validity procedures were conducted and involved initial consultation with
two expert researchers in HRD. The two researchers reviewed the instrument and
examined the clarity in meaning of the items. The two researchers judged the face and
content validity of the questionnaire as adequate. In addition, a pilot study was
conducted with 15 staff members who already went through the Basics training. The
pilot results provided information that lead to minor changes to some words and
questions in order to make the meaning clearer.
The questionnaire was administered to a total of 120 participants attending
workshops in the Basics program. The questionnaire was distributed directly by the
researcher and it was made clear that participation was voluntarily. Confidentiality
 EJTD was guaranteed. A total number of 107 questionnaires were completed and 101
questionnaires were usable (82.5 percent response rate). Analysis of the quantitative
36,2/3 data was through descriptive statistics.
Qualitative data collection were included to corroborate the quantitative data in
answering the research questions. Qualitative procedures included observing four
different Basics workshops. Observations were focused by the use of a set of guidelines
166 to maintain attention on the issues at hand. To avoid imposing the researcher’s
interpretations of these observations on what participants could have attributed to
their experiences, there was a need to validate the researcher’s interpretations. Such
validation was ensured by conducting a total of 15 comprehensive semi-structured
interviews with a selected group of participants.
The researcher conducted 12 interviews with six male and six female participants in
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the Basics program to get their perceptions of how well the training workshops were
helping them develop new skills. In addition, the researcher interviewed the Basics
program director to investigate the formal structures, processes and background of the
program. Finally, the researcher conducted two interviews with two trainers. These
interviews aimed to investigate the background of the trainers, their preparation for
the workshops, and their perceptions about the program, attitudes towards the
trainees, and opinions about factors that affect the training process.
The fundamental steps of the interview analysis included the following:
.
Upon completing the interviews, interview tapes were transcribed. The
transcriptions were reviewed to acquire a feeling for them, and “making sense
out of them” (Colaizzi, 1978, p. 59). Field notes were added to the transcripts to
help establish an overall understanding of the experiences of all interviewees.
.
All transcripts had significant statements extracted and recorded in a table.
.
To complete member checks (Lincoln and Guba, 1985), all participants were sent
a copy of the significant statements from the interviews and were asked to
review and confirm that these statements accurately reflected what they
intended to convey.
.
Formulated meanings were constructed for all interviewees’ significant
statements. A formulated meaning is a simple statement or phrase developed
by the researcher that reflects the essential meaning of the significant statement
identified earlier in the process (Colaizzi, 1978).
.
The formulated meanings for all interviewees were examined, and similar or
closely related statements were clustered together to form themes.
.
To validate the themes, the original transcripts were reviewed by the researcher
to ensure that the themes accounted for all the information in the transcriptions.

Table I below provides a summary of the sample and data collection procedure.

Quantitative data Qualitative data

Table I. Population Sample Respondents Trainees interviewed Program Director Trainers
Sample size and data
collection procedure 953 120 107 12 1 2
 Limitations Professional
Two major limitations should be noticed in this study. First, the findings of this study
could be subject to other interpretations due to the environment surrounding the
training
research as well as the observer’s subjectivity. We cannot rid ourselves of this
subjectivity, nor should we wish to; but we ought, perhaps, be aware of it (Cheater,
1987). Most significantly, though, analysis of the perceptions and experiences of
employees towards training activities helped the researcher develop an understanding 167
of the range of factors that mediate and impact the effectiveness of training. In terms of
the second limitation, while the depth of investigation gives a thorough understanding
of one single study, it is likely that it is only specific to the case or organization at hand
and thus limited to generalization.
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Validity and reliability of the survey

Constructing the validity of research instruments is an ongoing process (Watkins and
Marsick, 1997) and very important to assure that the findings are trusted and credible
(Merriam and Leahy, 2005). The reliability measures for DLOQ seven dimensions
resulting from the current study were as follows:
.
create continuous learning opportunities (Cronbach’s alpha: a ¼ 0:79);
.
promote inquiry and dialogue (a ¼ 0:84);
.
encourage collaboration and team learning (a ¼ 0:81);
.
empower people toward a collective vision (a ¼ 0:84);
.
establish systems to capture and share learning (a ¼ 0:84);
. connecting the organization to its environment (a ¼ 0:85);
. provide strategic leadership for learning (a ¼ 0:89).

The test reliability for the overall 43-item DLOQ scale used in this study was 0.96. The
reliability measure for the OCQ resulting from the current study was 0.89. Factor
analysis for the DLOQ produced seven factors. Factor loading had to be 0.35 or above
based on sample size (Hair et al., 1998). The seven factors had eigenvalues greater than
one. They accounted for 64.3 percent of total variance. Factor analysis for OCQ
produced a single factor solution (eigenvalue ¼ 5.0; variance ¼ 56.0 percent).

Results
This study yielded a broad perspective on issues related to formal training and
training transfer. The issues explored are related to trainees’ attitudes towards the
training activities they were exposed to, their perceptions of the impact of training
activities on their career development, and their attitudes towards work environment
that might predict the transfer of training.

Background and experience of participants

To have a better understanding of the background of the trainees and why they
attended the Basics workshops, we asked them in the survey some demographic
questions. Of the 101 participants, 55 were female. The mean age of respondents was
36 with age range of 23-59 years. Respondents reported an average of 9.3 years of work
experience, and an average tenure of 4.5 years in their current jobs. In terms of
education, all participants had earned a college undergraduate degree and 23 percent
 EJTD already earned or were working on a graduate degree. In terms of the Basics program
36,2/3 experience, respondents reported an average of 4.2 workshops attended. When asked
whether they were seeking a certificate through attending these workshops, 78 percent
of respondents answered in the positive and 22 percent in the negative.

Trainees’ perceptions of the impact of training activities

168 Survey results provided information on trainees’ perceptions of workshop activities
they were exposed to and whether these activities were applicable to their work.
Overall, respondents were highly satisfied with several facets of the training activities.
First, respondents were highly satisfied with “relevance of workshops to their
personal development” (M ¼ 4:12, SD ¼ 0:72). Second, respondents reported high
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satisfaction with the training workshops in regards to professional development

(M ¼ 4:10, SD ¼ 0:73). Third, respondents indicated satisfaction with respect to
applicability of training content (such as flexibility, communication skills, and
teamwork) at work (M ¼ 4:11, SD ¼ 0.79). Interview data supported these findings.
Following, are two quotes from interview respondents:
It was very informative for me and I now see how important to look at these issues [at work]
in a different perspective (W4, C17).
Very thorough, pleasant, and effective [workshop]. Content was excellent, I would not drop
anything (W3, V12).
As for the quality of information provided by the instructors, results showed mixed
responses. Respondents showed less satisfaction to this facet (M ¼ 3:62, SD ¼ 0:77).
Table II below provides a basic picture of trainees’ responses. In addition, interview
data included comments that reflect these results:
We were applying diversity while learning about it. The instructor was able to make us think
creatively but not sure how relate the activities we did to our work! (W1, D2).
This was not an excellent workshop. I did not know what the trainer really wanted to tell us
with all these activities. He might know his stuff, but I need his help to understand how to
apply them at work (W2, P5).
It is worth mentioning that the Basics program provided state of the art instructional
and information technology that the trainers utilized cleverly in conducting the
workshops. All workshops made greater use of a wide array of media, and utilized new
tailored, experience-based learning methods. Many media equipments were used,

HU U N S HS
Item n % % % % % M SD

Importance of workshop for you personally 101 0 6 19 28 47 4.12 0.72

Importance of workshop for you professionally 101 0 3 20 43 35 4.10 0.73
Understanding content and applying it to own work 98 2 1 18 40 37 4.11 0.79
Quality of information provided by instructor 101 1 11 31 40 18 3.62 0.77
Table II.
Trainees’ perceptions Notes: HU ¼ Highly unsatisfied; U ¼ Unsatisfied; N ¼ Neutral; S ¼ Satisfied; HS ¼ Highly
towards basics program satisfied; M ¼ Mean; SD ¼ Standard deviation
 including audiotapes, filmstrips, slides, opaque and transparency projections, online Professional
media and videotapes or DVDs. Still some trainees had difficulty with taking notes training
while engaged with the media used. Some trainees suggested having hard copies and
transcripts of the media illustrations.

Trainees’ attitudes toward the training program in relation to career development

In addition to the quantitative data that reported satisfaction with respect to personal 169
and professional development of trainees, part of the qualitative data collected with
fifteen trainees showed two premises for trainees to attending these workshops; getting
promoted and earning a certificate. Survey results showed that majority of trainees
(78 percent) were on track to earning a certificate. According to the program
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administrator: “Supervisors encourage employees to take certain workshops because

they think these classes would help employees when they have their annual
performance review and are also [the classes] critical to get employees promoted.” The
following quotes from different trainees eloquently echo this theme:
I am here because my boss wanted me to take these workshops, these [workshops] are critical
for my promotion. I will be reporting on this when I go back (W3, C3).
Going to training is associated with both my (work) performance review and salary increase
(W2, P15).

Trainees’ attitudes towards work environment factors that might predict training
transfer
To understand trainees attitudes towards factors related to work environment that
might affect the success of training transfer, the following factors were measured.
Organization culture. Organizational culture is a predictor for work environment
(Holton, 2005). Quantitative procedures were used to measure trainees’ perceptions
towards their organizational culture as a predictor for learning transfer. For this
purpose, we used Watkins and Marsick (2003) DLOQ instrument. Results showed that
the total mean for the learning culture (LO-total; M ¼ 3:31, SD ¼ 0:62) was low. But
results showed that among the seven dimensions of DLOQ measured, LO7 (providing
strategic leadership for learning) was high (LO7; M ¼ 3:67, SD ¼ 0:78). Table III
provides a summary of these results.
Motivation to transfer. Higher employee commitment to an organization is
considered one of the predictors for trainees’ motivation to transfer learning (Holton,
2005; Velada and Caetano, 2007). Using Mowday et al. (1979) affective commitment
part of the organizational commitment questionnaire (OCC), we measured employees’
affective commitment as a predictor for employee motivation for training transfer.
Results showed high means for organizational commitment (M ¼ 4:16, SD ¼ 0:64). In
addition, correlation coefficients were computed to check the correlation between the
organization culture (measured by the seven dimensions of the DLOQ) and
organizational commitment (measured by the OCQ affective commitment). Pearson
correlation results indicated that there was a significant moderate relationship between
learning organization culture seven dimensions and organizational commitment (0.42
# r # 0.57, p , 0:01). Coefficients ranged from r ¼ 0:42 for “promoting inquiry and
dialogue” to r ¼ 0:57 for “providing strategic leadership for learning.”
 EJTD
Variables n M SD
36,2/3
1. LO1 101 3.35 0.67
2. LO2 100 3.25 0.69
3. LO3 99 3.21 0.70
4. LO4 99 3.55 0.78
170 5. LO5 100 2.97 0.76
6. LO6 99 3.24 0.74
7. LO7 101 3.67 0.78
8. Total LO 97 3.31 0.62
9. Org. commitment 100 4.16 0.64
10. Gender 101 (55 female) – –
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11. Age 100 36.2 10.31

12. Total work (years) 101 10.4 9.75
13. Work with institution (years) 100 8.6 8.16
Table III. 14. No. of workshops attended 98 4.2 0.61
Means and standard 15. Seeking certification 100 (78 answered “Yes”) – –
deviations among seven
dimensions of LO, Notes: LO1: Creating continuous learning opportunities; LO2: Promoting inquiry and dialogue; LO3:
organizational Encouraging collaboration and team learning; LO4: Empowering people toward a collective vision;
commitment and LO5: Establishing systems to capture and share learning; LO6: Connecting the organization to its
demographics environment; LO7: Providing strategic leadership for learning

Other factors. To learn more about other factors that were not mentioned in the survey
items and affect transfer of training, we asked respondents an open ended question to
state their opinion about what factors they believed critical in the transfer of the skills
and knowledge learned in the Basics program back to their work. Seventy three
respondents responded to this question. The majority considered Recognition
(23 occurrences) as the number one factor in training transfer, followed by Transition
(19 occurrences), Work policies and procedures (17 occurrences), Teamwork
(15 occurrences), and Politics (14 occurrences). The Table IV provides a summary of
all factors along with their definitions and number of occurrences or times that
respondents mentioned those factors.

Challenges in addressing participants’ needs in professional training environment

A major endeavor of this research was dedicated to understanding participants’ needs
and whether Basics program provided learning environment and learning experiences
that left trainees with potential capacity for behavioral change.
Interview results showed that the more a learning environment is responsive to the
needs of trainees, the higher is the potential for trainees to succeed in implementing
their new acquired knowledge. The following quotes from different interviewees
provided evidence in this regard:
It would be great for all departments and businesses to present and share this (knowledge)
with their employees (W4, C13).
I learned a lot; Management in all departments should be required to attend this workshop
(W3, V3).
Some trainees went on to link what they learned, not only to their organization, but also
to society in general. The following comments illustrate this category:
 Professional
Factor Definition or theme Occurrence
training
Recognition Supervisors’ recognition and valuing of employees’
achievements from training 23
Transition The process where employees “let go” of their old
habits of doing work and “move” to doing things
using new acquired skills 19 171
Work policies and procedures The policies and procedures of the organization that
impede or support the progress of the trainee or
adult learner in terms of implementing new
knowledge 17
Teamwork Ability to change and work as a unit or team to
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implement new skills 15

Politics The organizational political powers and how that
affects employees’ performance after training 14
Personal ability to apply new skills Trainees’ self-confidence, adequate transfer skills,
and individual beliefs about expectations for Table IV.
training transfer and adjustments afterwards 7 Other factors employees
Family or personal factors Employee related factors that are not directly perceived as affecting
controlled by the institution such as economic transfer of training
issues and family problems 5 (n ¼ 73)

The information shared in this workshop can be used outside the workplace as well (W4, C2).
Very good information, very good presenter, among the top presenters so far. I think the topic
is important to our society (W3, V11).
The results also revealed two meandering conclusions. First, and in accordance with
Keep (1989) investments in Basics training workshops constituted a powerful
signaling device to reassure employees that they were valued by their employers. This
in turn enhanced employee motivation and commitment to the organization. Second, it
was understandable that the Basics program was recognized as a system by itself. At
the same time the program served as a training division or subsystem for several
organizations in the finance industry. Different organizations benefited from the
services of the Basics program to develop their employees, personally and
professionally.
Not all trainees had a positive experience with the training workshops. First, some
trainees were not satisfied with the topics discussed, “I felt the information only
scratched the surface of the topic. Course should have been designed to force more
participation” (W2, V2). Second, contrary to the established view that training
interventions should begin with a pre-training assessment (for example, Baldwin and
Magjuka, 1991); only one of four trainers administered a pre-training informal
assessment. She e-mailed the trainees attending her workshop one week before
conducting her workshop and asked them for feedback regarding expectations,
objectives and topics covered. In general, trainers were more interested in delivering
their workshops more than in assessing the specific needs of the participants or the
needs of their organization.
A third challenge common to the training workshops was the fact that they were
generic and nonspecific in nature. When asked about this “one-size-fits-all” issue,
Basics program administrator commented: “We do not target our content to a certain
 EJTD area but to a broad base. Anyone could get a lot from what we give” (I1, V1). Thus,
36,2/3 these workshops were tailored to the needs of the individual, and not to address
specific management or technical needs.
Basics program failed to tackle specific problems that concern individuals back at
their office and the activities discussed in these workshops did not lend themselves to
be easily integrated to the workplace setting. This idea was illustrated in the following
172 comment:
I needed more time to digest/practice applying these concepts. Much of the information was
geared to workplaces that can more easily measure productivity (products produced, no. of
contacts made, etc). I guess the service that my unit provides can best be measured in terms of
customer satisfaction (survey results) or errors made. I do not feel that I have the time to
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collect this information and still do my job though (W2, P15).

A forth challenge that emerged was the different learning styles of the trainees along
with taking into consideration the learning culture in Lebanon. Conventional wisdom
suggests that trainers can keep some trainees satisfied all the time but cannot keep all
trainees satisfied all the time. The following comments illustrate this category:
We need more strategies and conversation about actually solving some problems (W4, C10).
Instructor needed to keep the workshop interesting; it became very boring in the afternoon
(W4, C21).
Finally, the trainees learning experiences in this program were based on a one-time
experience, a single workshop. To truly develop a skill or behavior, learners require
repeated or multiple exposures. Basics program attempted to cover a range of skills
within just a few days. In the course of four workshops, as many as six to eight
categories, such as empowerment, diversity and communication skills were covered.
As a result, participants received only a single opportunity to practice a particular skill
and receive feedback. With so little exposure, the different experiences simply built
awareness rather than true understanding and skill development. Trainees were not
expected to transfer all learning they received back on the job, but they needed to feel
some mastery of parts of these workshops so that they can build their knowledge base.
The findings showed that training workshops were well structured by trainers,
convenient for the trainees, and consistent with their needs for career development and
life-long learning. Findings also revealed that training workshops did not target
specific organizational needs nor they reflect organizational interventions for change.
As for training transfer, results showed that a culture high on learning is positively
correlated to commitment and motivation to transfer.

Discussion
This study followed the framework suggested by Baldwin and Ford (1988). Based on
the results of this study, factors affecting transfer of training could be placed into four
different categories:
(1) individual;
(2) educational;
(3) institutional; and
(4) environmental.
 Individual Professional
Individual factors might be enablers or barriers to transfer of training. Results showed training
that trainees’ self-confidence, adequate transfer skills, and individual beliefs about
expectations for transfer and adjustment afterwards play a role in predicting the
motivation to transfer. Scholars have long realized the importance of individual
difference variables, such as cognitive ability, locus of control and training retention,
on the transfer of learning (e.g. Baldwin and Ford, 1988). 173
Educational
The transfer of training can oftentimes be related to educational factors in regards to
the program providing the training services. Results showed that trainers should be
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sufficiently prepared to teach trainees, should be well equipped to deal with culturally
diverse adults, and should understand adult learning theory. Results also showed that
training programs should adequately prepare trainees for the workplace rigors. It was
evident by respondents’ views that the better training workshops were those that
related the learning to trainees’ work-related problems. Therefore, basic assumptions
about learning needed to be modified if training transfer models were to be successful,
because Lebanese, as learners, do not fit easily into some of the accepted theories of
management learning.
Lang and Steger (2002) argued that knowledge transfer from the Western can no
longer be considered as a simple adoption of well proved “best practices” such as the
assess, design, develop, implement, evaluate (ADDIE) model. Rather, as a dynamic
process of learning, (re-)interpretation, (re-)evaluation and (re-) modeling and
(re-)combining with existing concepts, structures and instruments to create new
practices. This process is highly influenced by the power relations between the actors
as well by their continuing cultural background (see also Dirani, 2011).

Institutional
Institutional factors are those policies and procedures that impede or support the
progress of the trainee or adult learner. Institutional policies, procedures, and attitudes
toward trainees after they acquire the new knowledge and skills, create an institutional
culture or learning context that can be seen as welcoming or threatening to that
employee. Trainees would face two dueling worlds, or contexts, within their
organization in relation to framing a new identity development and to implementing
the transfer process. One, a negative context might emerge as an “alienating culture”
manifested with confusion due to policies, procedures, organizational language,
performance assessment, and other issues that might intimidate the trainee and hinder
the transfer of training. To juxtapose the alienating culture, a positive context or a
“learning culture” might emerge where the institutional community provides the
collective support trainees need and thus experience through assistance at the group
and organizational levels.

Environmental
Inherent in the idea of building a continuous learning culture (e.g. Tracey et al., 1995;
Marquardt, 1995; Watkins and Marsick, 2003) in the organization is the need of support
and empowering systems for employees (Senge, 1990; Watkins and Marsick, 2003).
Although trainees are adult learners and are self-serving, results showed that they do
 EJTD require a high level of support to be motivated to transfer learning (see also Holton,
36,2/3 2005; Russ-Eft, 2002). Results showed that environmental factors might be work
related or employee related. Work-related factors include peers and supervisors’
support and political powers. Other employee related issues and not directly controlled
by the institution include economic issues and family problems. Environmental factors
might be more important for the transfer of training, and a better predictor of it, than
174 other factors.

Implications for HRD

Nowadays, being able to benefit from formal training experiences is essential for the
success of the professional development of employees more than ever. An ability to
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maximize learning in such contexts is not limited to accruing benefits for the
development of short-term individual competencies but for the growth of such
competencies over the long haul as well (Holton, 2005).
HRD professionals need to be aware of the inadequate flexibility of some trainers to
understand the social, political, and cultural contexts of the local culture, or their
inadequate flexibility to adjust to different management styles. They need to move
away from over reliance on models, concepts, and materials derived from one
background that are inappropriate elsewhere. And they need to make sure that trainers
should provide a long-term commitment to providing adequate follow-through and
reinforcement of their training objectives and outcomes.
HRD professionals need the expertise and credibility to play the leading role in
supporting employee learning and in building and sustaining knowledge producing
environments where the creation, sharing and application of knowledge are a dominant
concern throughout the organization. To accomplish such objectives, HRD professionals
should find ways to improve employee expertise based upon a continual search for
better learning insights, strategies and procedures related to the mission of the
organization. For instance, they should be more involved in guiding and directing
trainees towards workshops that best serve their needs. Thus, short-term training
interventions would gain a part to play in building future organizational capacity, but
only a part. The greater need is for HRD strategies that integrate employee learning with
current business and HR strategies, focus on employee career development, and act on
creating a responsive culture. These strategies should include pre-training discussions
with the trainees and proper feedback and follow-up after training.
Additionally, management support is important for the success of professional
training interventions. Without visible involvement by managers, learners do not
perceive the behavioral change as strategically important to their organization. In that,
HRD professionals should act as constructive and positive agents (Cohen, 1990). They
must be prepared to work with both the supervisors and trainees to transfer the new
acquired experiences at training into shared knowledge and performance at work.
They should no longer operate in a silo (Dirani, 2007).
Further research is clearly needed on the complex question of training transfer and
effectiveness, particularly in terms of the influence of the wider HRD setting and the
dynamics by which training programs help translate training into positive outcomes
for productivity in the workplace. Such research would need to examine the financial
and productivity benefits (Green, 1997), as well as the long-term benefits for the
company and the workforce in terms of cultural and behavioral change.
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Wexley, K.N. and Latham, G.P. (2002), Developing and Training Human Resources in
Organizations, Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ.
Downloaded by University of Pennsylvania Libraries At 11:50 31 January 2016 (PT)

Further reading
Dirani, K.M. (2009), “Measuring the learning organization culture, organizational commitment
and job satisfaction in the Lebanese banking sector”, Human Resource Development
International, Vol. 12 No. 2, pp. 189-208.
Holton, E.F. and Baldwin, T.T. (2003), Improving Learning Transfer in Organizations,
Jossey-Bass Publishers, San Francisco, CA.
Kolb, D.A. (1984), Experiential Learning: Experience as the Source of Learning and Development,
Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ.

About the author

Khalil M. Dirani is an Assistant Professor at the University of Georgia, College of Education,
Department of Lifelong Education, Administration and Policy, Programs in Adult Education and
Human Resource and Organization Development. In his research, Khalil has aimed to test the
applicability of Western management and change theories in international contexts in an
attempt to understand how work outcomes might be altered accordingly. Other areas of research
that interest Khalil stem from his fascination with cultures and cultural differences as well as his
enthusiasm to study international human resource development and management practices. One
specific interest is to understand how country specific culture influences human resources and
management practices. Khalil M. Dirani can be contacted at: dirani@uga.edu

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