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Durability and Swelling of Solidified/Stabilized Dredged Marine Soils with Class-

F Fly Ash, Cement, and Lime

Article  in  Journal of Materials in Civil Engineering · March 2018

DOI: 10.1061/(ASCE)MT.1943-5533.0002187

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 Durability and Swelling of Solidified/Stabilized
Dredged Marine Soils with Class-F Fly
Ash, Cement, and Lime
Dongxing Wang, Ph.D. 1; Rachid Zentar, Ph.D. 2; and Nor Edine Abriak, Ph.D. 3

Abstract: Very few studies have been carried out to investigate the durability and swelling behavior of dredged marine materials. To tackle
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this issue, this study mainly considers the influence of water immersion and thawing-freezing on the stress-strain characteristics and swelling
property of 16 designed soil mixes with cement, lime, and Class-F fly ash. The unconfined compressive strength, failure strain, deformation
modulus, and their quantitative corelationships are discussed in detail to evaluate the mechanical performance of stabilized materials damaged
by water immersion and thawing-freezing. The result reveals that binder type and binder content have an important influence on the position
and shape of stress-strain curves, compressive strength, deformation modulus, failure strain, and failure mode. The derived relationships
between unconfined compressive strength and deformation modulus/failure strain are quantified, taking into account ageing effects.
To quantitatively estimate the strength degradation, a coefficient of strength loss is defined for evaluating the effect of thawing-freezing
and water immersion on compressive strength. Moreover, three-stage modes are proposed for depicting satisfactorily the stress-strain curves
and swelling-time curves. A combination of relative swelling percent and absolute swelling amount, which can be reduced by chemical
stabilization, is used to reasonably describe the swelling potential of stabilized soils. DOI: 10.1061/(ASCE)MT.1943-5533.0002187.
© 2018 American Society of Civil Engineers.
Author keywords: Marine soils; Class-F fly ash; Solidification; Thawing-freezing; Water immersion; Swelling.

Introduction the feasibility of stabilized soils as road base materials by an in situ

In recent years, alternative solutions to the traditional practice of
ocean dumping of dredged fine soils have been widely developed
against a background of sustainable development. Around the
world, the dredging operations generate annually over 600 Mm3
of dredged soils (Boutin 1999), and the volume in France exceeds
50 Mm3 =year (Alzieu 1999). Such a huge amount of dredged soils
can be reused as an alternative to natural soil resources in civil
engineering. The application domains of dredged soils include
road base materials (Wang et al. 2012a, 2013a, b), embankments
(Levacher and Sanchez 2011), brick production (Hamer and Karius
2002; Samara et al. 2009), cement production (Dalton et al. 2004;
Aouad et al. 2012), concrete production (Chen et al. 2012a), and
aggregate production (Wei et al. 2011; Chen et al. 2012b). It should
be emphasized that the authors have conducted a systematic re-
search on the beneficial reuse of dredged Dunkirk soils and proven
1 thawing cycles on the strength and permeability in landfill liner
Associate Professor, Key Laboratory of Geotechnical and Structural
Engineering Safety of Hubei Province, School of Civil Engineering,
Wuhan Univ., 8 Dong Hu South Rd., Wuhan 430072, China; Associate
Professor, State Key Laboratory of Water Resources and Hydropower
Engineering Science, Wuhan Univ., 8 Dong Hu South Rd., Wuhan 430072,
China; formerly, Postdoctoral Researcher, Ecole des Mines Douai, LGCgE
MPE-GCE, F-59508 Douai, France (corresponding author). E-mail:
dongxing-wang@whu.edu.cn
2
Professor, Ecole des Mines Douai, LGCgE MPE-GCE, F-59508
Douai, France. E-mail: rachid.zentar@mines-douai.fr
3
Professor, Ecole des Mines Douai, LGCgE MPE-GCE, F-59508
Douai, France. E-mail: nor-edine.abriak@mines-douai.fr
Note. This manuscript was submitted on December 9, 2016; approved
on September 6, 2017; published online on January 6, 2018. Discussion
period open until June 6, 2018; separate discussions must be submitted
for individual papers. This paper is part of the Journal of Materials in Civil
Engineering, © ASCE, ISSN 0899-1561.
test road (Zentar et al. 2008; Siham et al. 2008; Dubois et al. 2009;
Zentar et al. 2012; Miraoui et al. 2012; Wang et al. 2012a, 2013a, b;
Achour et al. 2014). It can be concluded from the aforementioned
studies that very few studies have been carried out on the durability
and swelling of Dunkirk marine soils. The current study attempts to
perform a series of laboratory tests to fill these gaps.
Chen et al. (1997) showed the influence of freeze-thaw cycles on
the compressive strength of stabilized wet flue desulfurization
(FGD) sludge; lime content, curing time, and water content were
identified as having a marked influence on the durability of FGD
materials. The impact of freeze-thaw cycles on aggregate stability
of Norway soils was studied by Kværnø and Øygarden (2006), who
presented a detrimental effect on soil stability. Wang et al. (2007)
concluded that the shape of stress-strain curves on Tibet clay was
not affected by freezing-thawing, but the resilient modulus and fail-
ure strength were heavily affected. Kalkan (2009) proved that silica
fume can be successfully used to mitigate the effect of freezing-
and cover systems. Zaimoglu (2010) found that the unconfined
compressive strength of fiber-reinforced soils subjected to freezing-
thawing cycles increased with fiber content. Ahmed and Ugai
(2011) studied the effect of freeze-thaw and wet-dry cycles on the
durability of gypsum-stabilized soil, which was improved as
cement and recycled gypsum content increased.
Bahar et al. (2004) reported that the best stabilization method
can be a combination of mechanical compaction and chemical
stabilization by cement/sand. Hossain et al. (2007) defined the
strength ratio as the ratio of 7-day water immersion strength to
91-day normal curing strength, which was higher for cement-based
soils than lime/volcanic ash–stabilized soils. Liu et al. (2011) found
the water stability was elevated by an increase in concentration of a
new organic polymer soil stabilizer named STW. The durability of
lime-treated soils subjected to water contact and water circulation

© ASCE 04018013-1 J. Mater. Civ. Eng.

J. Mater. Civ. Eng., 2018, 30(3): 04018013

 was discussed by Runigo et al. (2011). They suggested that long-
term water contact leads to an important decrease in shear strength,
and relatively higher lime content than LMO (lime modification
optimum) gave rise to a longer resistance to water circulation.
Nalbantoğlu (2004) investigated the effectiveness of Class-C fly
ash as an expansive soil stabilizer. He found fly ash can effectively
reduce the swell potential of highly plastic clays. Lin et al. (2007)
made an effort to improve the strength and swelling properties of
soft subgrade soil by sewage sludge ash and hydrated lime. Yilmaz
(2009) established an equation between swell percent and liquidity
index, which applied well with an acceptable accuracy for percent
swell estimation. Viswanadham et al. (2009) reported laboratory
results on expansive soil reinforced with geofibers and proved
that both discrete and randomly distributed geofibers are useful in
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restraining the swelling tendency.
The aforementioned discussions indicate that the durability and
swelling performance of soils stabilized with cement, lime, fly ash,
silica fume, fibers, and organic stabilizer have been widely re-
ported. However, few studies can be found on the durability and
swelling of dredged marine soils, especially on marine soils from
Dunkirk Harbor in France. Hence, the focus of current study is to
investigate (1) stress-strain relationships of Dunkirk marine soil sta-
bilized with cement, lime, and fly ash under water immersion and
thawing-freezing; (2) effect of water immersion and thawing-
freezing cycles on compressive strength, failure strain, and defor-
mation modulus; (3) quantitative relationships of compressive
strength with deformation modulus/failure strain; and (4) swelling
behavior of stabilized soils evaluated by the proposed concepts of
relative swelling and absolute swelling.
Materials
Dredged Materials
The dredged marine soils were collected from East Port of Dunkirk
Harbor in France. The location of Dunkirk Harbor and sampling site
are illustrated in Fig. 1. Dunkirk Harbor, which extends over 17 km of
waterfront, is well known for its intensive industrial activities.
Dunkirk soils, which are derived from a variety of sources that are de-
posited on the ocean floor, were identified by Wang et al. (2012a, b)
Fig. 1. Location of Dunkirk port and sampling zone
© ASCE 04018013-2
J. Mater. Civ. Eng., 2018, 30(3): 04018013
to have quartz and halite as the main crystalline minerals and
kaolinite and illite as the predominant clay phases.
A series of laboratory tests were performed to define the char-
acteristics of Dunkirk soils. The initial water content measured at
40°C is approximately 129.9%, nearly two times higher than the
liquid limit of 76.1%. The grain-size distribution obtained through
laser diffraction technique indicated that the dredged soils are com-
posed of 74.7% silt, 14.5% clay, and 10.8% sand. The methylene
blue test showed a clay activity value of 3.1, implying the potential
sensitivity of tested soil to water invasion. The specific gravity is
2.54, smaller than the typical range (2.65–2.70 g=cm3 ) of soils in
civil engineering. The mass loss on ignition at 550°C is 6.27%,
higher than the limit value of 6% for a very high organic material
as per the classification in use for road materials [XP P 94-047
(Association Française de Normalisation 1998)]. The liquid and
plastic limit, determined by the percussion-cup and rolling thread
method according to NF P 94–051 (Association Française de
Normalisation 1993) and NF P 94–052-1 (Association Française
de Normalisation 1995), are, respectively, 76.1 and 35.3%.
Binding Materials
This section presents in detail the binding materials and their
chemical mechanisms in modifying soils. The lime used is of type
quicklime, namely Lhoist PROVIACAL ST (Lhoist Group, Lime-
lette, Belgium). It contains at least 90% CaO and at most 2% MgO
according to the production description submitted by the seller. For
soil-lime mixes, it is accepted that cation exchange, flocculation,
and agglomeration happens in a short time, and pozzolanic reactions
occur over a long period to form cementitious gels [calcium silicate
hydrate (C─S─H) and calcium alumina hydrate (C─A─H)].
Cement, denoted CEM I 42.5R HSR LA-CIBELCOR, is a hy-
draulic binder produced in Belgium. The cement contains 63.3%
CaO, 21.4% Si O2 , 4.0% Fe2 O3 , 3.3% Al2 O3 , 2.4% MgO, and other
components. For a soil-cement mix, the modification of soil is
brought about by the hydration of cement and pozzolanic reaction
with clay minerals. The skeletal structure is likely to form around
large soil particles by cementing agents, i.e., secondary products
C─S─H and C─A─H gels.
Fly ash, an industrial by-product, is adopted to replace cement
or lime from a perspective of environment protection and resource
conservation. Fly ash from the power plant LA SNET in northern
J. Mater. Civ. Eng.
 France contains less than 1% CaO, 29% Al2 O3 , 50% Si O2 , 8.5%
Fe2 O3 , 3% MgO, and 4.5% K2 O. According to ASTM C618
(ASTM 2005) standard, the SILICOLINE SECHE (LA SNET,
Saint-Avold, France) fly ash is classified as Class-F fly ash, i.e.,
silicoaluminous fly ash. Class-F fly ash cannot be used alone in
soil stabilization because it does not manifest the desirable self-
cementing property. An activator such as cement or lime is a
key factor to the strength formation and development. A battery
of tests was performed on soil-fly ash mixtures prepared with
cement or lime as activators. Cement/lime-stabilized soils with a
high volume of fly ash are studied to evaluate the potential use
of large volumes of fly ash in roadways. The figure offered by Shen
et al. (2009) shows the hydration status of fly ash and formation of
AFt (3CaO · Al2 O3 · 3CaSO4 · 32H2 O) in the presence of plenty
of phosphogypsum (CaSO4 · 2H2 O). The test result reported by
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water immersion tests were carried out according to French standard
NF P 94-102-2 (Association Française de Normalisation 2001). The
water immersion ageing aims to simulate the attack of complicated
wet or rainy weather, where large amounts of water filter into the
samples (Zentar et al. 2012). Subjected to 28-days curing at room
temperature of 20°C and relative humidity of 98%, the standard
cylindrical samples were submerged in deionised water for 32 days.
After that, the samples were taken out of the water and subjected to
air-drying for 2 h prior to the compressive strength testing.
To simulate in situ conditions when no significant change in
moisture is expected between summer and winter (Zentar et al.
2012), the thawing-freezing tests were performed. Standard NF
P 98-234-1 (Association Française de Normalisation 1992b) details
the climatic chamber, where no source of water was available dur-

ing the 20 freezing-thawing cycles. The tests were performed at

Hilmi Lav et al. (2006) illustrates the identification of a hydration room temperature 20°C on 28-day-cured samples. Fig. 2(c) shows
product—calcium silicate hydrate (C─S─H) gel—maintaining a a freezing-thawing cycle of 24 h. In the first stage, the samples
cementing bond between particles. were maintained at 10°C for 4 h; in the second stage, the samples
were conditioned at 10°C for 14 h; the remaining time permitted the
gradual transition between −10 and 10°C. The damaged samples
Methodology were finally broken in a compression machine.
In accordance with NF P 94-078 (Association Française de
The preliminary study demonstrated that the characteristics of stud- Normalisation 1992a), a modified Proctor compaction mold
ied soils are insufficient for a beneficial use as a road foundation 152 mm in height and 156 mm in diameter was used to evaluate
material. It was proposed to improve the mechanical performances the swelling potential of designed materials. The 4-day water im-
by mixing dredged soils with various cementitous binders. The mersion permitted samples to vertically swell, and readings of a
details of mix proportions and corresponding abbreviations are pro- dial gauge were monitored by a vertical displacement transducer
vided in Table 1. The percentage of binders was calculated on the [Fig. 2(d)]. The relative swelling percent was calculated based
dry weight of soil samples. on initial sample height and change in height caused by swelling.
To evaluate the mechanical properties of stabilized/solidified The absolute swelling is defined as the absolute change in sample
soils, the unconfined compressive strength (UCS) was measured
height in millimeters.
on cylindrical samples made at the optimum water content and
maximum dry density. The standard samples (50 mm in diameter
and 100 mm in height) were cured for 28 days in sealed plastic
boxes at room temperature of 20°C and relative humidity of 98%. Results and Discussion
The measurement of UCS was performed as per the test standard
NF EN 13286-41 (Association Française de Normalisation 2003) Stress-Strain Relationships Affected by Water
through testing facility INSTRON 5500R 4206-006 (INSTRON Immersion or Thawing-Freezing
France S.A.S., Élancourt, France). Average UCS values were mea- Figs. 3 and 4 present the typical stress-strain curves of cement, lime,
sured by vertical force transducers [Fig. 2(a)] on three samples.
and Class-F fly ash–stabilized samples subjected to thawing-freezing
To investigate the possible difficulties for using proposed ma-
and water immersion ageing. Deformation modulus E50 , failure
terials in a roadbed, durability tests should be carried out, including
strain εf , and unconfined compressive strength UCS can be calcu-
thawing-freezing, water immersion, and swelling tests. Figs. 2(b–d)
lated herein. Discussion of E50 , εf , and UCS is important for con-
illustrate the corresponding testing methods in the laboratory. The
ducting bearing capacity and deformation analysis when solidified/
stabilized soils are used as a bearing stratum.
Nonstabilized dredged soils (SD) cannot be observed in these
Table 1. Designed Mixes and Symbols
figures because the samples have been broken during thawing-
Dredged Lime Cement Fly ash freezing or water immersion. Fig. 5 shows the collapse of non-
Type soils (%) (%) (%) (%) Symbol stabilized samples and stabilized samples SD10L20F because of
Nonstabilized 100 0 0 0 SD the invasion of aging induced by water or temperature swings. The
Lime 97 3 0 0 SD3L ageing effect, leading to strength loss, can gradually weaken the
94 6 0 0 SD6L physical-chemical interactions among soil particles. It would be
91 9 0 0 SD9L impossible to perform any mechanical tests on such heavily broken
Cement 97 0 3 0 SD3C
samples.
94 0 6 0 SD6C
91 0 9 0 SD9C
Figs. 3 and 4 show the variation of unconfined compressive
Lime plus fly ash 94 3 0 3 SD3L3F strength σ with vertical strain ε on stabilized soils at different
91 3 0 6 SD3L6F binder contents. The incorporation of cement, lime, and fly ash has
91 6 0 3 SD6L3F an important effect on the stress-strain behavior. The stabilized
Cement plus fly ash 94 3 0 3 SD3C3F samples attained a distinct axial peak stress at an axial failure strain
91 3 0 6 SD3C6F of approximately 0.74–2.12%, following which they collapsed.
91 6 0 3 SD6C3F Cement-stabilized soils exhibited more apparent ductility than
High-volume fly ash 70 10 0 20 SD10L20F lime-stabilized soils. For lime-stabilized soils damaged by thawing-
70 5 5 20 SD5C5L20F freezing cycles, the addition of fly ash motivates stress-strain curves
70 0 10 20 SD10C20F
to move toward the origin. This can be proven by the high-volume

© ASCE 04018013-3 J. Mater. Civ. Eng.

J. Mater. Civ. Eng., 2018, 30(3): 04018013

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Fig. 2. Strength and durability measurement: (a) unconfined compressive strength test; (b) water immersion test; (c) freezing-thawing test;
(d) swelling test

2.0 1.2 2.0 SD5C5L20F

SD3L SD3C SD3L3F SD3C3F
SD3L6F SD3C6F SD10C20F
SD6L SD6C
1.6 SD6L3F SD6C3F 1.6
SD9L SD9C

0.8
1.2 1.2
σ (MPa)

σ (MPa)

σ (MPa)

0.8 0.8
0.4

0.4 0.4

0.0 0.0 0.0

0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4
(a) ε (%) (b) ε (%) (c) ε (%)

Fig. 3. Stress-strain curves of stabilized soils subjected to thawing-freezing: (a) lime/cement; (b) lime/cement plus fly ash; (c) cement/lime plus
high-volume fly ash

fly ash addition in Fig. 3(c), where an evident decrease in failure
strain εf can be observed. The stress-strain curves of cement-
stabilized soils tend to move away from the origin because of
the weakening effect in brittleness.
As can be seen in Figs. 3 and 4, the stress-strain curves of
designed mixes have the shape of a more or less flat downward
parabola. The stress-strain relationship (brittleness/ductility),
deformation and strength would differ significantly. The full
stress-strain curves can be divided into three parts: linear elastic,
nonlinear, and postfailure. After an initial linear portion, the vertical
stress σ continues to rise until the peak stress (unconfined compres-
sive strength). Finally, the stress σ drops suddenly until a failure
occurs. Fig. 6 presents two failure modes of tested samples:
(1) shear failure along a surface, and (2) drum-expansion failure.

© ASCE 04018013-4 J. Mater. Civ. Eng.

J. Mater. Civ. Eng., 2018, 30(3): 04018013

 2.0 1.2 2.4
SD3L SD3C SD3L3F SD3C3F SD10L20F
SD6L SD6C SD3L6F SD3C6F SD5C5L20F
SD9L SD9C SD6L3F SD6C3F 2.0 SD10C20F
1.6

0.8 1.6
1.2
σ (MPa)

σ (MPa)

σ (MPa)
1.2

0.8
0.4 0.8

0.4
0.4

0.0 0.0 0.0

0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4
(a) ε (%) (b) ε (%) (c) ε (%)
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Fig. 4. Stress-strain curves of solidified soils subjected to water immersion: (a) lime/cement; (b) lime/cement plus fly ash; (c) cement/lime plus
high-volume fly ash

The sudden failure results from microcracks, which develop con-
tinuously until the tested samples are completely destroyed, and a
principle failure surface appears (Fig. 6). The intrinsic reason why
two failure modes emerge and whether the failure modes are
affected by the stabilization degree is an interesting issue to be
further identified in future.
Thawing-Freezing Damage
The development of UCS on stabilized mixes subjected to thawing-
freezing cycles can be defined, as well as deformation modulus E50
and failure strain εf . Figs. 7(a–c) show the evolution of UCS, E50 ,
and εf with respect to binder content and binder type. The thawing-
freezing cycles decrease the strength of stabilized soils, but differ-
ent binder contents and binder types might lead to different chang-
ing trends. In Fig. 7(a), the changing trend of UCS of damaged
samples is similar to that of samples under normal curing condition,
as reported by Wang et al. (2013b). The UCS value increases
significantly with cement content even with a small addition of
cement. It is different from lime treatment, where UCS of damaged
samples varies within a small interval of 0.52–0.61 MPa. However,

Fig. 5. Collapse of tested samples: (a) SD subjected to water immer-

sion; (b) SD10L20F subjected to freezing-thawing Fig. 6. Failure modes of solidified/stabilized samples

© ASCE 04018013-5 J. Mater. Civ. Eng.

J. Mater. Civ. Eng., 2018, 30(3): 04018013

 3 3

2 2

UCS (MPa)

εf (%)
1 1

0 0

3L
6L

SD L
3C

SD C
SD 9C
SD 3 F
S D L6 F
S D L3 F
SD 3 F
SD C6F

SD 10L F
F
10 0F
0F
3L
6L

SD L
3C

SD C
SD 9C
SD 3 F
SD 6 F
S D L3 F
SD 3 F
SD C6F

SD 10L F
F
10 0F
0F

3
5C 20
3
5C 20

9
9

6
6

S D 5 L2
C2
S D 5 L2
C2

SD

3C

SD 6C
SD
SD

3L
SD
SD
SD

3C

SD 6C
3L
3L

SD
SD

3
6
6

3
3
(a) (b)

400
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300
E50 (MPa)

200

100

S D L3 F
SD 6 F
S D L3 F
SD L
6L

SD L
3C

SD C
SD 9C

F
SD 3 F
SD C6F

SD 10L F

10 0F
0F
3

5C 20
6

3
3L
SD

SD

SD

3C

SD 6C

S D 5 L2
C2
3

3
(c)

Fig. 7. Evolution of strength, strain, and modulus for samples subjected to thawing-freezing damage: (a) unconfined compressive strength; (b) failure
strain εf ; (c) deformation modulus E50

the addition of fly ash has a negative influence on UCS of lime- SD10C20F, which are comparable to 241.2 MPa on SD9C. Similar
stabilized soils. This means Class-F fly ash is incapable of improv- tendencies can be observed for UCS and E50 , which provides a
ing resistance to thawing-freezing ageing. Similar results can be possibility to get a quantitative correlation between them.
seen for cement-stabilized samples, where a reduction of strength In order to quantify the influence of thawing-freezing on
appears. For SD6C subjected to thawing-freezing, UCS decreases strength, the coefficient of strength loss λ28 , defined in Eq. (1),
from 1.15 to 0.68 MPa because of the inclusion of 3% fly ash. was proposed by Zentar et al. (2012) and Wang et al. (2013a)
For SD3C, UCS ranges from 0.54 to 0.37 MPa (SD3C3F) and
0.34 MPa (SD3C6F). Moreover, an interesting issue arises for Rc28 − Rctf
λ28 ð%Þ ¼ ð1Þ
high-volume fly ash. The UCS value of SD5C5L20F is close to that Rc28
of SD6C, with similar results observed for SD9C and SD10C20F.
This conclusion contributes to the potential use of high-volume fly where Rc28 and Rctf = compressive strength of stabilized soils cured
ash in soil stabilization. under normal conditions for 28 days and subjected to thawing-
Fig. 7(b) illustrates the variation of failure strain of stabilized freezing cycles, respectively.
samples. The εf value decreases from 2.13 to 1.81% with lime con- As indicated in Table 2, the addition of fly ash decreases the
tent ranging from 3 to 9%. As cement content increases, εf varies 28-day compressive strength and compressive strength subjected
from 1.81% for SD3C, via 1.58% for SD6C, to 1.10% for SD9C.
However, fly ash has similar influence on εf of cement/lime-
Table 2. Coefficient of Strength Loss λ28 on Samples Subjected to
stabilized samples in accordance with UCS. For SD3L and SD6L, Thawing-Freezing
the value of εf is reduced by 16.43% (SD3L3F), 26.76%
(SD3L6F), and 10.88% (SD6L3F). For SD3C and SD6C, εf is Material Rc28 Rctf λ28
decreased by 6.63% (SD3C3F), 7.18% (SD3C6F), and 4.43% SD3L 0.72 0.61 16
(SD6C3F) in the presence of fly ash. Judging from the loss of SD6L 0.55 0.52 6
εf , lime plus fly ash–stabilized soil samples are less resistant to SD9L 0.62 0.55 11
thawing-freezing than cement plus fly ash–stabilized samples. SD3C 0.94 0.54 42
Fig. 7(c) describes the change of deformation modulus E50 with SD6C 1.62 1.15 29
SD9C 2.24 1.65 26
binder content and binder type. E50 changes slightly within the SD3L3F 0.95 0.51 46
range of 52.4–59.5 MPa for lime treatment, but it considerably in- SD3L6F 0.92 0.44 52
creases from 57.4 MPa at 3% cement to 137.8 and 241.2 MPa at 6 SD6L3F 0.78 0.57 27
and 9% cement. The introduction of fly ash brings about a decrease SD3C3F 0.65 0.37 44
in E50 of lime-stabilized/cement-stabilized soils. For SD6C, 3% fly SD3C6F 0.66 0.34 48
ash results in a decrease in E50 from 137.8 to 58.6 MPa. It indicates SD6C3F 1.47 0.68 53
that fly ash has a notable impact on E50 because of the inclusion of SD10L20F 0.57 — —
fine particles and insufficient pozzolanic reaction. E50 reaches the SD5C5L20F 1.71 1.32 23
SD10C20F 2.10 1.63 22
highest value of 215.3 MPa for SD5C5L20F and 280.8 MPa for

© ASCE 04018013-6 J. Mater. Civ. Eng.

J. Mater. Civ. Eng., 2018, 30(3): 04018013

 3 3

2 2

UCS (MPa)

εf (%)
1 1

0 0
3L 6L 9L 3C 6C 9C 3F 6F 3F 3F 6F 3F 20F 0F 0F

SD 3 F
S D L6 F
S D L3 F
3L
6L

SD L
3C

SD C
SD 9C

F
SD 3 F
SD C6F

SD 10L F

10 0F
0F
9

5C 20
6

3
SD SD SD SD SD SD D3L D3L D6L D3C D3C D6C 0L 5L2 0C2

3L
SD
SD
SD

SD

3C

SD 6C

S D 5 L2
C2
3
6

3
S S S S S S D1 5C D1
(a) (b) S D S
S

400
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300
E50 (MPa)

200

100

S D L3 F
S D L6 F
S D L3 F
SD L
6L

SD L
3C

SD C
SD 9C

F
SD 3 F
SD C6F

SD 10L F

10 0F
0F
3

5C 20
6

3
SD

SD

SD

3C

SD 6C

S D 5 L2
C2
3
3
6

3
(c)

Fig. 8. Evolution of strength, strain, and modulus for samples subjected to water immersion ageing: (a) unconfined compressive strength; (b) failure
strain εf ; (c) deformation modulus E50

to thawing-freezing. The quantity of strength loss defined by
Eq. (1) can also be found. The λ28 values of lime-stabilized soils
are smaller than those of cement-stabilized soils at the same binder
amount. This means that the thawing-freezing damage causes more
strength loss in cement-stabilized soils than in lime-stabilized soils,
but the absolute value of the former is evidently higher. Hence, an
interesting issue arises. The coefficient λ28 can describe the relative
strength loss in percentage, but it is incapable of reflecting the ab-
solute magnitude of strength of samples. It is better to keep this in
mind when using the concept λ28 to quantify the strength loss. Sur-
prisingly, samples with 3–9% lime are the most resistant to volume
change, from the perspective of λ28 . It seems quite complicated to
explain this phenomenon, which should be investigated in future by
microstructural characterization.
powerful evidence for recycling high amounts of fly ashes in soil
stabilization.
Fig. 8(b) shows a decreasing trend of εf with cement/lime
amount from 3 to 9%. The εf value varies from 1.98% of SD3L,
via 1.62% of SD6L, to 1.57% of SD9L, and εf ranges from 1.18%
(SD3C), via 0.88% (SD6C), to 1.02% (SD9C). Evidently, fly ash
causes a reduction in εf to 1.18% for SD3L3F, 1.02% for SD3L6F,
and 1.15% for SD6L3F. It is unexpected that for cement treatment,
the values of εf are increased by fly ash to 1.50% for SD3C3F,
1.45% for SD3C6F, and 0.93% for SD6C3F. This might be attrib-
utable to an important alternation in brittleness/ductility caused by
water immersion. For high-volume fly ash treatment, εf achieves
1.98, 1.07, and 0.74%, respectively, for SD10L20F, SD5C5L20F,

Water Immersion Ageing Table 3. Coefficient of Strength Loss λ28 on Samples Subjected to Water
Immersion
The impact of water immersion on UCS, E50 , and εf will be dis-
cussed herein. Fig. 8 depicts the mechanical and deformation per- Material Rc28 Rcim λ28
formance of cement, lime, and fly ash–stabilized soils subjected to SD3L 0.72 0.52 28
32-day water immersion. Table 3 presents the strength values of SD6L 0.55 0.42 24
normally cured samples and samples subjected to water immersion. SD9L 0.62 0.42 32
In Fig. 8(a), the addition of fly ash has a slight influence on lime- SD3C 0.94 0.44 54
stabilized and cement-stabilized soils. For SD6L and SD6C, the SD6C 1.62 0.96 41
SD9C 2.24 1.16 48
addition of 3% fly ash results in a change of UCS from 0.42 MPa SD3L3F 0.95 0.51 47
(SD6L) and 0.96 MPa (SD6C), respectively, to 0.46 MPa SD3L6F 0.92 0.46 50
(SD6L3F) and 0.94 MPa (SD6C3F). This means that fly ash does SD6L3F 0.78 0.46 41
not improve the resistance to water invasion at a relatively small SD3C3F 0.65 0.50 24
additive amount. Particularly, the UCS of high-volume fly ash– SD3C6F 0.66 0.48 27
stabilized soils is considerably higher than tested samples with SD6C3F 1.47 0.94 36
similar cement content. For SD5C5L20F and SD10C20F, the UCS SD10L20F 0.57 0.32 44
values reach 1.50 and 1.79 MPa, respectively, higher than 0.96 MPa SD5C5L20F 1.71 1.50 12
SD10C20F 2.10 1.79 15
of SD6C and 1.16 MPa of SD9C. This phenomenon provides

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J. Mater. Civ. Eng., 2018, 30(3): 04018013

 and SD10C20F. The variation of εf is quite complicated if com-
pared with samples at similar cement/lime amount, e.g., SD6L
and SD9C. Higher amounts of cement lead to a relatively small
failure strain corresponding to relatively high strength.
In Fig. 8(c), the change of deformation modulus E50 is shown
for stabilized samples with respect to cement, lime, and fly ash.
An increasing tendency for lime treatment is obtained, and E50
of SD3L is augmented to 81.1 MPa (SD3L3F) and 86.2 MPa
(SD3L6F). This is contrary to Mixes SD3C and SD6C. As a result
of fly ash, the moduli are decreased from 77.8 MPa (SD3C)
and 265.1 MPa (SD6C) to 45.2 MPa (SD3C3F), 46.4 MPa (SD3C6F),
and 194.4 MPa (SD6C3F). Particularly, the E50 value of SD10C20F is
larger than that of SD9C, whereas the E50 of SD10L20F and
SD5C5L20F is unfortunately smaller than that of SD6C.
The coefficient of strength loss λ28 in Eq. (2) is used for samples
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generally behaves better than lime. Hence, the absolute strength
Rcim should be adopted in combination with λ28 to evaluate the effect
of water immersion. After comparison, Mixes SD5C5L20F and
SD10C20F exhibited the best performance in terms of resistance
to water. This can be explained by the chemical reactions such as
cation exchange and alkaline activation of high-volume fly ash.
UCS–E 50 and UCS–εf Relationships
As discussed earlier, the variation of E50 is highly consistent with
the development of UCS for designed materials. Similar analyses
can be conducted to correlate UCS with εf based on the obtained
test data. As presented in Figs. 9 and 10, the relationships of UCS
versus E50 and UCS versus εf are quantified.

Fig. 10 shows the testing data points of stabilized soils subjected

subjected to water immersion
Rc28 − Rcim
λ28 ð%Þ ¼ ð2Þ
Rc28
where Rc28 and Rcim = compressive strength of stabilized soils
cured under normal condition for 28 days and subjected to water
immersion.
Parameters values including λ28 , Rc28 , and Rcim are presented in
Table 3. The strength loss of lime-stabilized soils is lower than that
of cement-stabilized soils. This indicates cement-stabilized soils are
less efficient in resisting water corrosion than lime-stabilized soils.
This is contrary to the practical common sense because cement
to 20 thawing-freezing cycles. It can be seen that most values of
εf are within the range of 0.70–2.67%, and εf tends to decrease
with increasing UCS. The development of E50 is highly consistent
with UCS and reaches the maximum value of 308.74 MPa in
SD10C20F. With least-squares regression analysis, the fitting
curves of UCS versus E50 and UCS versus εf are plotted in Fig. 10,
i.e., Eqs. (3) and (4)
UCS ¼ 1.1074 εf−1.4553 ; R2 ¼ 0.54 ð3Þ
E50 ¼ 127.79 UCS1.4112 ; R2 ¼ 0.94 ð4Þ
where εf = failure strain corresponding to the peak strength.

Fig. 9. UCS–E50 and UCS–εf relationships for samples subjected to thawing-freezing damage: (a) UCS–εf curve; (b) UCS–E50 curve

Fig. 10. UCS–E50 and UCS–εf relationships for samples subjected to water immersion ageing: (a) UCS–εf curve; (b) UCS–E50 curve

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J. Mater. Civ. Eng., 2018, 30(3): 04018013

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Fig. 11. United relationships of UCS–E50 and UCS–εf : (a) UCS–εf curve; (b) UCS–E50 curve
The data points and fitting curves are reported in Fig. 10 and
Eqs. (5) and (6) for samples subjected to 32-day water immersion.
εf has an increasing tendency with decreases in UCS, whereas the
E50 value is significantly increased with UCS up to a maximum
value of 342.08 MPa. The power functions are attempted to de-
scribe the relationships of UCS–E50 and UCS–εf , as expressed
by Eqs. (5) and (6)
UCS ¼ 0.8368 ε−1.3238
f R2 ¼ 0.63 ð5Þ
E50 ¼ 157.88 UCS1.3198 R2 ¼ 0.63 ð6Þ
For stabilized mixes, the fair correlation coefficient, R,
(R2 ¼ 0.84 and 0.94) suggests that the derived power function
is a useful engineering tool to characterize the E50 –UCS relation-
ship. An important change in correlation coefficient R (R2 ¼ 0.54
and 0.63, and <0.84 and 0.94) appears for UCS–εf on stabilized
samples after water immersion. However, this can still be consid-
ered acceptable for describing the quantitative relationship of
UCS–εf in case of lacking data.
Similar trends for UCS–E50 and UCS–εf relationships between
two actions, thawing-freezing and water immersion, inspired the
authors to determine the unified relationships of UCS–E50 and
UCS–εf . The unified results are shown in Fig. 11. Eqs. (7)
and (8) depict the unified expressions with R2 equal to 0.89 and
0.56, respectively, for UCS–E50 and UCS–εf . The best fitting
curves expressed by Eqs. (7) and (8) contributes to predicting
the rough values of parameters εf and E50 . Especially, the approxi-
mation relationships of UCS–εf and UCS–E50 can be observed,
i.e., UCS ¼ ð3.9–248.3Þ εf and E50 ¼ ð47.7–282.6Þ UCS, namely
Eqs. (9) and (10)
UCS ¼ 0.9472 ε−1.2987 R2 ¼ 0.56 ð7Þ
f
E50 ¼ 143.98 UCS1.3877 R2 ¼ 0.56 ð8Þ
UCS ¼ ð14.1–248.3Þ εf ð9Þ
E50 ¼ ð47.7–282.6Þ UCS ð10Þ
Swelling Properties
Figs. 12(a–e) depict the relative swelling in percentage and absolute
swelling in millimeters, and reports the efficiency of chemical sta-
bilization in reducing swelling potential. The detailed values are
© ASCE 04018013-9
J. Mater. Civ. Eng., 2018, 30(3): 04018013
provided in Table 4. As illustrated in Fig. 12, the swelling behavior
of designed mixes can be satisfactorily described by a three-stage
model: linear stage of rapid growth, transition stage, and nonlinear
stage of gradual growth. In the first 6 h, the swelling deformation is
sharply increased to certain amount in accordance with a linear
model. A transition stage is observed wherein the swelling rate de-
creases. A gradual growth of swelling potential follows the transi-
tion stage and finally tends to remain constant. For nonstabilized
soil, the absolute swelling value reaches 1.79 mm because of the
moisture film around clay particles, corresponding to 1.54%. The
swelling of designed soils may not be important, but it cannot
be negligible.
The swelling curves are plotted in Fig. 12 for designed materials
with various binders. Except SD5C5L20F, the swelling percent
and absolute value of nonstabilized soils are greater than those
of stabilized soils. This is to say, the binder addition gives rise
to an evident reduction in swelling percent and swelling amount.
The swelling potential increases from 0.86% at 3% lime to 1.08%
at 6% lime, followed by a decrease of 0.76% at 9% lime. The rel-
ative swelling achieves 0.23–0.53% with a cement amount from
3 to 9%, where the absolute swelling is 0.27–0.62 mm. However,
the incorporation of fly ash induces unexpectedly complicated var-
iations in swelling potential. Following addition of 3% fly ash,
the relative swelling of SD3C decreased from 0.53 to 0.30% (from
0.62 to 0.35 mm), whereas the swelling percent of SD6C changed
slightly from 0.23 to 0.25% (from 0.49 to 0.30 mm). For cement/fly
ash–treated soils, the skeleton structure is likely to form because of
the generation of cementing agents C–S–H. This process leads to
the formation of coarser particles (Osula 1996) and restrains the
swelling potential of stabilized soils.
For SD3L and SD6L, 3% fly ash leads to an increase in the
relative swelling from 0.86 to 1.12% and from 1.08 to 1.35%, re-
spectively. This indicates that the inclusion of 3% fly ash brings
about a rise in swelling potential. This may be related to the
particle-size distribution of fly ash, in which the portion of fine
particles reaches more than 80%. The pozzolanic reaction of
lime-activated fly ash is herein incapable of explaining the swelling
performance of stabilized soils.
With regard to a high volume fly ash of 20%, the swelling po-
tential was found to be greatly reduced for designed mixes except
for SD5C5L20F. It is unexpected that the swelling percent and
swelling amount of SD5C5L20F exceeds that of nonstabilized
soils by approximately 6%. It should be further investigated to
explain the reason for this strange phenomenon. As indicated
in Table 4, the swelling percentage of all the designed mixes is
less than 5%, which means the designed mixes are considered
J. Mater. Civ. Eng.
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Fig. 12. Swelling behavior of solidified/stabilized soils: (a) lime; (b) cement; (c) lime plus fly ash; (d) cement plus fly ash; (e) high-volume fly ash

acceptable according to NF P 94-100 (Association Française de
Normalisation 1999).
Conclusions
A series of unconfined compression tests were performed to inves-
tigate stress-strain relationship, compressive strength UCS, failure
strain εf , deformation modulus E50 , and swelling potential of ce-
ment, lime, and Class-F fly ash–stabilized/solidified dredged marine
soils exposed to water immersion and thawing-freezing. The follow-
ing conclusions can be drawn from the experimental results:
• Stress-strain curves indicate the brittleness/ductileness of
soils is influenced by binder type and binder content. This is
reflected by the position, shape, and opening of stress-strain
curves on designed mixes. The full stress-strain curves can
be divided into three parts: linear elastic, nonlinear, and postfai-
lure stages;
• Ageing effects of thawing-freezing and water immersion could
reduce the strength of stabilized soil, but different binder

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J. Mater. Civ. Eng., 2018, 30(3): 04018013

 Table 4. Swelling of Solidified/Stabilized Soils References
Material Swelling amount (mm) Swelling percent
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contents and binder types lead to different changing trends.
Class-F fly ash is incapable of improving the resistance to
thawing-freezing and water immersion at relatively small addi-
tion amounts. Cement behaves better than lime in increasing
absolute UCS values, but worse performance is observed for
cement from the viewpoint of coefficient of strength loss;
• A power function exists between compressive strength and fail-
ure strain/deformation modulus. The unified relationships are
obtained for stabilized soils subjected to water immersion and
thawing-freezing, UCS ¼ ð14.1–248.3Þ εf and E50 ¼ ð47.7
282.6ÞUCS. They are useful for predicting the rough values of
εf and E50 in case of lacking data; and
• A three-stage model is proposed to describe the swelling beha-
vior. The addition of cement, lime, and fly ash gives rise to an
evident reduction in swelling potential. The designed stabilized
mixes are considered adaptive and acceptable because the
swelling percent is less than the limit of 5%.
Acknowledgments
The authors gratefully acknowledge the support provided by
European project SEDIMATERIAUX GPMD, National Natural
Science Foundation of China (NSFC, No. 51609180), and
Hubei Provincial Natural Science Foundation of China (No.
2016CFB115).
Notation
The following symbols are used in this paper:
E50 = deformation modulus (MPa);
Rc28 = 28-day unconfined compressive strength of mixes cured
under normal conditions (MPa);
Rcim = unconfined compressive strength of mixes after water
immersion (MPa);
Rctf = unconfined compressive strength of mixes after thawing-
freezing cycles (MPa);
ε = strain (%);
εf = strain at failure (%);
λ28 = coefficient of strength loss (%); and
σ = stress (MPa).
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