Joining Processes

Welding Part 1
PROSES MANUFAKTUR 1
 Introduction

Numerous components are assembled and joined so that

they can function reliably and economical to produce

Based on the books “Manufacturing Engineering Technology” by Kalpakjian

Introduction

Joining is an all-inclusive term covering processes such as

welding, brazing, soldering, adhesive bonding, and
mechanical fastening

Based on the books “Manufacturing Engineering Technology” by Kalpakjian

Introduction

Some important aspect of manufacturing and assembly operations:

1. Simple product may be impossible to manufacture as a single piece
2. The product is easier and more economical to manufacture as individual
components
3. Products need to be designed to be able to be taken apart for maintenance or
replacement of their parts
4. Different properties may be desirable for functional purposes of the product
5. Transporting the product in individual components and assembling them later

Based on the books “Manufacturing Engineering Technology” by Kalpakjian

Introduction

Focus of the discussion

Based on the books “Manufacturing Engineering Technology” by Kalpakjian

Introduction

➢ Welding processes involve the partial melting and fusion between two
members to be joined
➢ Fusion welding is defined as melting together and coalescing materials by
means of heat
➢ Filler metals are metals added to the weld area during welding
➢ Fusion welds made without the use of filler metals are known as autogenous
welds

Based on the books “Manufacturing Engineering Technology” by Kalpakjian

Oxyfuel–gas Welding
Oxyfuel–gas Welding

➢ Oxyacetylene–gas welding (OFW) is a general term used to describe any

welding process that uses a fuel gas combined with oxygen to produce a flame
➢ The primary combustion process involves :

➢ The secondary combustion process is :

Based on the books “Manufacturing Engineering Technology” by Kalpakjian

Oxyfuel–gas Welding

Three basic types of oxyacetylene flames used in

oxyfuel-gas welding and cutting operations: (a)
neutral flame; (b) oxidizing flame; (c) carburizing,
or reducing flame.
The gas mixture in (a) is basically equal volumes
of oxygen and acetylene. (d) The principle of the
oxyfuel-gas welding operation.

Based on the books “Manufacturing Engineering Technology” by Kalpakjian

Oxyfuel–gas Welding

Flame Types
➢ The proportion of acetylene and oxygen in the gas mixture is an important
factor
➢ At a ratio of 1:1, the flame is neutral
➢ For greater oxygen supply, it is known as an oxidizing flame
➢ For insufficient oxygen, the flame is a reducing, or carburizing flame

Based on the books “Manufacturing Engineering Technology” by Kalpakjian

Oxyfuel–gas Welding

Filler Metals
➢ Used to supply additional metal to the weld zone during welding
➢ Available as filler rods or wire and may be bare or coated with flux
➢ Purpose of the flux is to retard oxidation of the surfaces of the parts being
welded by generating a gaseous shield around the weld zone

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Oxyfuel–gas Welding
Welding Practice and Equipment
➢ Can be used with most ferrous and nonferrous metals for almost any
workpiece thickness
➢ The equipment consists of a welding torch connected by hoses to high-
pressure gas cylinders and equipped with pressure gages and regulators
➢ The low equipment cost is an attractive feature

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 Oxyfuel–gas Welding

(a) General view of and

(b) cross-section of a torch used in oxyacetylene
welding. The acetylene valve is opened first; the
gas is lit with a spark lighter or a pilot light; then
the oxygen valve is opened and the flame
adjusted.
(c) Basic equipment used in oxyfuel-gas welding.
To ensure correct connections, all threads on
acetylene fittings are left-handed, whereas those
for oxygen are right-handed. Oxygen regulators
are usually painted green, and acetylene
regulators red.

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 Arc-welding Processes

➢ In arc welding, the heat required is obtained from electrical energy

➢ Process involves a consumable or a nonconsumable electrode

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 Arc-welding Processes:
Nonconsumable Electrode
Gas Tungsten-arc Welding (GTAW) or Tungsten Inert Gas (TIG Welding)
➢ In nonconsumable-electrode welding processes, the electrode is a tungsten electrode.
➢ The filler metal is supplied from a filler wire
➢ The gas tungsten-arc welding process, formerly known as TIG (for tungsten inert gas) welding.

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 Arc-welding Processes:
Nonconsumable Electrode
Gas Tungsten-arc Welding (GTAW) or Tungsten Inert Gas (TIG Welding)
➢ As the tungsten electrode is not consumed, a constant and stable arc gap is maintained at a constant
current level
➢ GTAW process is used for applications with aluminum, magnesium, titanium and the refractory metals
➢ Typically, argon is used as the inert gas
➢ Cost of the inert gas is more expensive but provides high quality welds and surface finish

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 Arc-welding Processes:
Nonconsumable Electrode
Plasma Arc Welding (PAW) :
➢ A plasma is an ionized hot gas composed of nearly equal numbers of
electrons and ions.
➢ The plasma is initiated between the tungsten electrode and the orifice
by a low-current pilot arc.
➢ What makes plasma-arc welding unlike other processes is that the
plasma arc is concentrated because it is forced through a relatively
small orifice.
➢ Operating currents usually are below 100 A, but they can be higher for
special applications.
➢ When a filler metal is used, it is fed into the arc, as is done in GTAW.
➢ Arc and weld-zone shielding is supplied by means of an outer-shielding
ring and the use of gases such as argon, helium, or mixtures.
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 Arc-welding Processes:
Nonconsumable Electrode
There are two methods of plasma-arc welding:
➢ In the transferred-arc method (Fig. a), the workpiece being welded is part of the electrical circuit. The
arc transfers from the electrode to the workpiece—hence the term transferred.
➢ In the nontransferred method (Fig. b), the arc occurs between the electrode and the nozzle, and the
heat is carried to the workpiece by the plasma gas. This thermal-transfer mechanism is similar to that
for an oxyfuel flame

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 Arc-welding Processes:
Consumable Electrode
Shielded metal-arc welding (SMAW)
➢ Is one of the oldest, simplest, and most versatile joining processes
➢ Electric arc is generated by tip of a coated electrode against the workpiece

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 Arc-welding Processes:
Consumable Electrode
Gas Metal-arc Welding (GMAW) or Metal Inert Gas (MIG Welding)
➢ The weld area is shielded effectively by an inert atmosphere of gases
➢ The consumable bare wire is fed automatically through a nozzle into the weld arc by a wire-
feed drive motor

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 Arc-welding Processes:
Consumable Electrode
Flux-cored Arc Welding (FCAW)
➢ Similar to gas metal-arc welding (MIG), except that the electrode is tubular in shape and is filled with
flux
➢ FCAW process combines the versatility of SMAW with the continuous and automatic electrode-
feeding feature of GMAW.

Based on the books “Manufacturing Engineering Technology” by Kalpakjian

 Arc-welding Processes:
Consumable Electrode
Submerged-arc Welding (SAW) is classified as a semi automatic-welding process :
➢ The weld arc is shielded by a granular flux consisting of lime, silica, manganese oxide, calcium fluoride,
and other compounds.
➢ The flux is fed into the weld zone from a hopper by gravity flow through a nozzle
➢ The thick layer of flux completely covers the molten metal. It prevents spatter and sparks and
suppresses the intense ultraviolet radiation.
➢ The flux also acts as a thermal insulator by promoting deep penetration of heat into the workpiece.

Based on the books “Manufacturing Engineering Technology” by Kalpakjian

 Arc-welding Processes:
Consumable Electrode
ElectroGas Welding (EGW) is classified as a machine-welding process :
➢ Is used primarily for welding the edges of sections vertically and in one pass with the pieces placed edge
to edge (butt joint). It requires special equipment.
➢ The weld metal is deposited into a weld cavity between the two pieces to be joined.
➢ The space is enclosed by two water-cooled copper dams (shoes) to prevent the molten slag from running
off; mechanical drives move the shoes upward. Circumferential welds (such as those on pipes) also are
possible, with the workpiece rotating.

Based on the books “Manufacturing Engineering Technology” by Kalpakjian

 Arc-welding Processes:
Consumable Electrode
Electroslag welding (ESW) :
➢ Its applications are similar to electrogas welding.
The main difference is that the arc is started
between the electrode tip and the bottom of the
part to be welded.
➢ Flux is added, which then melts by the heat of the
arc.
➢ After the molten slag reaches the tip of the
electrode, the arc is extinguished.
➢ Heat is produced continuously by the electrical
resistance of the molten slag.

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 Electrodes for Arc Welding
Electrodes for consumable arc-welding processes are classified according to the following properties :
1. Strength of the deposited weld metal
2. Current (AC or DC)
3. Type of Coating

Basic functions Electrode Coatings :

1. Stabilize the arc.
2. Generate gases to act as a shield
3. Control the rate at which the electrode melts
4. Act as a flux to protect the weld
5. Add alloying elements to the weld zone to enhance the properties of the joint

Based on the books “Manufacturing Engineering Technology” by Kalpakjian

 Electrodes for Arc Welding
AWS standart of electode numbering : E XXXX
The prefix “E” designates arc welding electrode.
The first two (or three) digits XX indicate minimum tensile strength in kpsi :
E60XX 60,000 psi
E70XX 70,000 psi
E110XX 110,000 psi
The next-to-last digit X indicates position:
EXX1X All positions
EXX2X Flat position and horizontal fillets
The last two digits X together indicate the type of covering and the current to be used.

Based on the books “Manufacturing Engineering Technology” by Kalpakjian

Various Welding Process
 Various Welding Process:
Electron-beam Welding
➢ Heat is generated by high velocity narrow-beam
electrons
➢ The kinetic energy of the electrons is converted into
heat as they strike the workpiece
➢ Process requires special equipment to focus the beam
on the workpiece, typically in a vacuum
➢ Almost any metal can be welded by EBW
➢ The weld quality is good and of very high purity

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 Various Welding Process :
Laser-beam Welding
➢ Utilizes a high-power laser beam as the source of heat to produce a fusion weld
➢ The beam can be focused onto a very small area
➢ Process is suitable particularly for welding deep and narrow joints
➢ Produces welds of good quality with minimum shrinkage or distortion

Comparison of the size of weld beads:

(a) laser-beam or electron-beam welding, and
(b) tungsten-arc welding.

Detail of Gillette Sensor™ razor

cartridge, showing example of laser
spot welds

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Cutting

Oxyfuel–gas Cutting
➢ The heat source is now used to remove a narrow zone from a metal plate or sheet
➢ Suitable for steels, basic reactions with steel are

➢ Greatest heat is generated by the second reaction and it can produce a temperature rise to
about 870°C
➢ Temperature is not high to cut steels and the workpiece need to preheat with fuel gas

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Cutting

Oxyfuel–gas Cutting
➢ The process generates a kerf
➢ Maximum thickness that can be cut by OFC depends mainly on the gases used

(a) Flame cutting of steel plate with an

oxyacetylene torch, and a cross-
section of the torch nozzle.
(b) Cross-section of a flame-cut plate,
showing drag lines.

Based on the books “Manufacturing Engineering Technology” by Kalpakjian

The Weld Joint, Quality, and Testing
 The Weld Joint, Quality, and Testing

3 distinct zones can be identified in a typical weld

joint:
1. Base metal
2. Heat-affected zone
3. Weld metal

Metallurgy and properties of the second and third

zones depend strongly on the type of metals joined

Characteristics of a typical fusion-weld

Based on the books “Manufacturing Engineering Technology” by Kalpakjian
zone in oxyfuel-gas and arc welding.
 The Weld Joint, Quality, and Testing
Solidification of the Weld Metal
Solidification process is similar to that in casting and
begins with the formation of columnar (dendritic)
grains.
Grain structure and grain size depend on the specific
metal alloy, the welding process employed and the
type of filler metal.

Grain structure in
(a) deep weld and
(b) shallow weld. Note that the grains in the solidified weld
metal are perpendicular to their interface with the base
metal.
(c) Weld bead on a cold-rolled nickel strip produced by a laser
beam.
(d) Microhardness (HV) profile across a weld bead.

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 The Weld Joint, Quality, and Testing
Heat-affected Zone (HAZ)
➢ The strength and hardness depend on the original strength and
hardness of the base metal , may have been developed by
(a) cold working,
(b) solid-solution strengthening,
(c) precipitation hardening, or
(d) various heat treatments.
➢ The heat applied during welding recrystallizes the elongated
grains of the cold-worked base metal.
➢ Such a joint will be weakest at its HAZ.
➢ The effects of heat on the HAZ for joints made from dissimilar
metals and for alloys strengthened by other methods are so HAZ
complex
Based on the books “Manufacturing Engineering Technology” by Kalpakjian
 The Weld Joint, Quality, and Testing
Weld Defects
➢ A welded joint may develop various discontinuities
➢ Can be caused by an inadequate or careless application of proper welding
technologies or by poor operator training

Porosity
➢ Caused by gases released during melting of the weld area, chemical
reactions and contaminants
➢ Can be reduced by:
1. Proper selection of electrodes and filler metals
2. Improved welding techniques
3. Proper cleaning and the prevention of contaminants
4. Reduced welding speeds

Based on the books “Manufacturing Engineering Technology” by Kalpakjian

 The Weld Joint, Quality, and Testing
Weld Defects
Incomplete Fusion and Penetration
➢ Produces poor weld beads
➢ Better weld can be obtained by:
1. Raising the temperature of the base metal
2. Cleaning the weld area before welding
3. Modifying the joint design
4. Providing sufficient shielding gas

Based on the books “Manufacturing Engineering Technology” by Kalpakjian

 The Weld Joint, Quality, and Testing
Weld Defects
Cracks
➢ Occur in various locations and directions in the weld area
➢ Result from a combination of:
1. Temperature gradients
2. Variations in the composition of the weld zone
3. Embrittlement of grain boundaries
4. Hydrogen embrittlement
5. Inability of the weld metal to contract during cooling
➢ Basic crack-prevention measures:
1. Modify the joint design to minimize stresses
2. Change the parameters, procedures, and sequence of the welding operation
3. Preheat the components to be welded
Based
4. Avoid rapid cooling onwelded
of the the books “Manufacturing Engineering Technology” by Kalpakjian
components
 The Weld Joint, Quality, and Testing
Weld Defects
Cracks

Crack in a weld bead. The two

welded components were
not allowed to contract freely
after the weld was Types of cracks developed in welded joints. The cracks are caused by thermal
completed. stresses, similar to the development of hot tears in castings.

Based on the books “Manufacturing Engineering Technology” by Kalpakjian

 The Weld Joint, Quality, and Testing
Weld Defects
Weld Profile
It is important because its effects on the strength and appearance
of the weld, indicate incomplete fusion or the presence of slag
inclusions in multiple-layer welds
➢ Underfilling results when the joint is not filled with the proper
amount of weld metal (Fig. a).
➢ Undercutting results from the melting away of the base metal
and the consequent generation of agroove in the shape of
asharp recess or notch (Fig. b).
➢ Overlap is a surface discontinuity (Fig. b) usually caused by
poor welding practice or by the selection of improper
materials.
➢ A good weld (Fig. c)
Based on the books “Manufacturing Engineering Technology” by Kalpakjian
The Weld Joint, Quality, and Testing
Weld Defects

Residual Stresses
➢ When two plates are being welded, the plates are at ambient
temperature
➢ If the plate is not free to warp, it will develop residual stresses

Residual stresses developed in

(a) a straight butt joint. Note that
the residual stresses in
(b) must be internally balanced.

Based on the books “Manufacturing Engineering Technology” by Kalpakjian

 The Weld Joint, Quality, and Testing
Weld Defects

Residual Stresses
➢ Distortion of a welded structure is shown
➢ The residual-stress distribution places the weld and the HAZ in a state of residual tension

Distortion of a
welded structure.

Based on the books “Manufacturing Engineering Technology” by Kalpakjian

 The Weld Joint, Quality, and Testing
Weld Defects

Residual Stresses
➢ Residual stresses can cause:
1. Distortion, warping and buckling
2. Stress-corrosion cracking
3. Further distortion
4. Reduced fatigue life

Distortion of part
after welding.

Based on the books “Manufacturing Engineering Technology” by Kalpakjian

The Weld Joint, Quality, and Testing
Weld Defects

Stress Relieving of Welds

➢ Problems caused by residual stresses is reduced by preheating the base metal or the parts to
be welded
➢ Preheating will reduce the cooling rate and level of thermal stresses developed
➢ Workpieces may be heated in a furnace, electrically or by radiant lamps for thin sections
➢ Residual stresses can be relieved by plastically deforming the structure by a small amount

Based on the books “Manufacturing Engineering Technology” by Kalpakjian

 The Weld Joint, Quality, and Testing
Weld Testings
➢ Quality of a welded joint is established by testing
➢ Welded joints may be tested destructively or non-destructively

Destructive Testing Techniques

1) Tension test
2) Tension-shear test
3) Bend test
4) Fracture toughness
5) Corrosion and creep

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 The Weld Joint, Quality, and Testing
Weld Testings
Nondestructive Testing Techniques
➢ Test for critical applications in which weld failure can be catastrophic
➢ Consist of the following methods:
1. Visual
2. Radiographic (X-rays)
3. Magnetic-particle
4. Liquid-penetrant
5. Ultrasonic

Based on the books “Manufacturing Engineering Technology” by Kalpakjian

 The Weld Joint, Quality, and Testing
Weld Testings
Nondestructive Testing Techniques
1. Visual
Visual examination is the observation of that portion of componens, joints, and other elements
that are or can be exposed for examination.
Visual examination includes verification of Code and engineering requirement for materials,
components, dimensions, joint preparation, alligment, welding and the performance of any
required heat treatment
Visual inspection requires little equipment :
1. Good eyesight
2. Suficient light
3. Pocket rule
4. Weld size gauge
5. Magnifiying glass
6. Perpendicular rule

Based on the books “Manufacturing Engineering Technology” by Kalpakjian

 The Weld Joint, Quality, and Testing
Weld Testings
Nondestructive Testing Techniques
2. Radiographic (X-rays)

Based on the books “Manufacturing Engineering Technology” by Kalpakjian

 The Weld Joint, Quality, and Testing
Weld Testings
Nondestructive Testing Techniques
3. Magnetic-particle Inspection (MPI)

Based on the books “Manufacturing Engineering Technology” by Kalpakjian

 The Weld Joint, Quality, and Testing
Weld Testings
Nondestructive Testing Techniques
4. Liquid-penetrant

Based on the books “Manufacturing Engineering Technology” by Kalpakjian

 The Weld Joint, Quality, and Testing
Weld Testings
Nondestructive Testing Techniques
5. Ultrasonic

Based on the books “Manufacturing Engineering Technology” by Kalpakjian

To be continued….
Part 2 :
Solid State Welding
Cold Welding and Roll Bonding
Friction Welding
Resistance Spot Welding
Resistance Seam Welding
Brazing
Soldering