Fluid Mechanics II: Boundary Layer Theory - 2015/04/07 Jo Ao C. C. Henriques // Joaochenriques@tecnico - Ulisboa.pt

Fluid Mechanics II
Boundary layer theory - 2015/04/07

João C. C. Henriques // joaochenriques@tecnico.ulisboa.pt
JCCH / Fluid Mechanics II / Boundary layer theory - 2015/04/07 1/1

Bibliography
[1] Brederode, V., Fundamentals of incompressible aerodynamics, author’s
edition (in portuguese), 1997.
[2] André, J.M.C.S., Fluid Mechanics II - Notes on boundary layer theory (in
portuguese), 2014.
[3] White, F.M., Fluid Mechanics, 4th Edition, McGraw-Hill, 2002.
[4] Schlichting, H. Boundary-Layer Theory, McGraw-Hill, 7th Edition, 1979.

Section 1
Introduction to the boundary layer concept
Two-dimensional laminar boundary layer equations
Blasius laminar boundary layer similarity solution

Potential flow
Velocity field of a potential flow (no viscosity) aligned with a flat plate
Straight and parallel fluid element paths

Constant velocity profile U = Ue = const
Constant static pressure p = pe = const

Viscous flow
Station A - Consider a uniform (inviscid) flow in front of a flat

plate at speed Ue
station B - When the flow ’hits’ the plate, the fluid element that touches the
plate has zero velocity
No slip condition at the wall Uw = 0
The fluid element above was not disturbed and maintains its velocity Ue
Station C - fluid element in contact with the wall has zero velocity
due to the viscosity, the shear stresses τ decrease the velocity of the fluid
elements above

Viscous flow
Shear stresses between layers

∂u
τ=µ (1)
∂y
flow decelerates along y
The velocity close to the solid surface continuously decreases towards
downstream
A velocity gradient is set up in the fluid in a direction normal to flow

Viscous flow
The boundary layer is defined as the region where the shear stresses are not
neglectible
Boundary layer thickness ⇒ height δ such that U/Ue = 0.99
The boundary layer grows by diffusion of momentum
∂τ ∂2 u
=µ 2 (2)
∂y ∂y
Additional video: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7SkWxEUXIoM

Derivation of the boundary layer equations for laminar flow
The Navier-Stokes equations for two-dimensional steady laminar flow are given
by
Continuity equation (mass conservation)

∂u ∂v
+ =0 (3)
∂x ∂y
Conservation of momentum along x

2
∂2 u

∂u ∂u ∂p ∂ u
ρu + ρv =− +µ + (4)
∂x ∂y ∂x ∂x 2 ∂y 2
Conservation of momentum along y

2
∂2 v

∂v ∂v ∂p ∂ v
ρu + ρv =− +µ + (5)
∂x ∂y ∂y ∂x 2 ∂y 2

Let us consider a flat plate of length L

The exterior velocity (outside the boundary layer) is Ue
The boundary layer thickness at the end of the plate is δ
The most important assumption in boundary layer theory
δL (6)
Most of the time we represent the boundary layer with a larger thickness
for the sake of clarity!

Therefore, we have the following orders of magnitude (O)
O [x] = L (7)
O [y ] = δ (8)
O [u] = Ue (9)
O [v ] = V (10)
We already know the relation between the δ and L, Eq. (6)
If we analyse the orders of magnitude of each term of the continuity equation

we can can determine the relation between the orders of magnitude of the
velocities Ue and V

V
O =? (11)
Ue

Let us define the following dimensionless variables with unitary order of

magnitude
u x
ũ = ⇒ O [ũ] = 1, x̃ = ⇒ O [x̃] = 1
Ue L
v y
ṽ = ⇒ O [ṽ ] = 1, ỹ = ⇒ O [ỹ ] = 1
V δ
The order of magnitude of the first-order derivatives are given by

u
∂
∂u Ue Ue Ue ∂ũ Ue Ue
= x = ∼O O [1] = O
∂x L ∂ L ∂x̃ L L
L
∂ v

∂v V V ∂ṽ V V
= V
y = ∼ O O [1] = O
∂y δ ∂ δ ∂ỹ δ δ
δ

The order of magnitude of the term of the continuity equation are

∂u ∂v
=−
∂x ∂y

Ue V
O =O
L δ
To have the same order of magnitude, the order of magnitude of V is

δ
O [V ] = O [v ] = O Ue (12)
L
This relation clearly shows that
V Ue (13)

To analyse the order of magnitude of the terms of the momentum equations we

need to define the order of magnitude of the pressure
O [p] = p∞ (14)
and the dimensionless pressure

p
p̃ = ⇒ O [p̃] = 1
p∞

In dimensionless form, the conservation of momentum along x is (divided by ρ)

u u
∂ ∂
Ue2

u Ue Ue V v Ue
x + y
L Ue ∂ δ V ∂
L δ

p u u

2 2
∂ ∂ ∂
p∞ p∞  Ue U e U e U e

=− x + ν 2 x 2 + 2 y 2 
ρL ∂  L δ 
∂ ∂
L L δ
giving
Ue2 ∂ũ Ue ∂2 ũ Ue ∂2 ũ

Ue V ∂ũ p∞ ∂p̃
ũ + ṽ =− +ν 2 2
+ 2 (15)
L ∂x̃ δ ∂ỹ ρL ∂x̃ L ∂x̃ δ ∂ỹ 2

Using the order of magnitude of V , Eq. (12),
Ue2 ∂ũ Ue ∂2 ũ Ue ∂2 ũ

Ue Ue δ ∂ũ p∞ ∂p̃
ũ + ṽ =− +ν + (16)
L ∂x̃ δ L ∂ỹ ρL ∂x̃ L2 ∂x̃ 2 δ2 ∂ỹ 2
L
and multiplying Eq. (16) by
Ue2
∂2 ũ L2 ∂2 ũ

∂ũ ∂ũ p∞ ∂p̃ ν
ũ + ṽ =− 2 + 2
+ 2 2
∂x̃ ∂ỹ ρUe ∂x̃ Ue L ∂x̃ δ ∂ỹ
The factor that multiplies the viscous terms is the inverse of the Reynolds
number
Ue L
Re = (17)
ν

Using the definition of the Reynolds number
∂ũ ∂ũ p∞ ∂p̃ 1 ∂2 ũ 1 L2 ∂2 ũ

ũ + ṽ =− · + · + ·
∂x̃ ∂ỹ ρU 2 ∂x̃ Re ∂x̃ 2 Re δ2 ∂ỹ 2
| {z } | {ze } | {z } | {z } | {z } | {z } | {z }
O [1] (C) O [1] (B) O [1] (A) O [1]
This equation leads to the second most important assumption in boundary

layer theory
The order of magnitude of (A) is
1 L2

O =1 (18)
Re δ2

From Eq. (18) we get

δ 1
O =O √ (19)
L Re
and
L2

O [Re] = O (20)
δ2
Eq. (20) ⇒ the Reynolds number must be large to the boundary layer
theory be valid

The order of magnitude of (C) is

p∞
O =1 (21)
ρUe2
since it is a relation between the static and the dynamic pressure of the free
stream
Since Re 1 then we can neglect term (B) in comparison with the term (A)
to have viscous effects, giving
∂ũ ∂ũ ∂p̃ 1 ∂2 ũ

ũ + ṽ =− + (22)
∂x̃ ∂ỹ ∂x̃ Re ∂ỹ 2

In dimensionless form, the conservation of momentum along y is (divided by ρ)
∂ v
v
Ue V u V 2
v ∂
V + V
L Ue ∂ x δ V ∂ y
L δ

p  v v 
∂ ∂ 2
∂2
p∞ p V V
=− ∞ + ν  2 xV2 + 2 yV2 

ρδ ∂ y L δ
∂ ∂
δ L δ
giving
V 2 ∂ṽ V ∂2 ṽ V ∂2 ṽ

Ue V ∂ṽ p∞ ∂p̃
ũ + ṽ =− +ν 2 2
+ 2 2 (23)
L ∂x̃ δ ∂ỹ ρδ ∂ỹ L ∂x̃ δ ∂ỹ

Using the order of magnitude of V , Eq. (12),
U 2 δ2 1 ∂ṽ Ue δ 1 ∂2 ṽ Ue δ 1 ∂2 ṽ

Ue Ue δ ∂ṽ p∞ ∂p̃
ũ + e2 ṽ =− +ν + (24)
L L ∂x̃ L δ ∂ỹ ρδ ∂ỹ L L2 ∂x̃ 2 L δ2 ∂ỹ 2
δ
Multiplying Eq. (24) by
Ue2
δ2 ∂ṽ δ2 ∂ṽ δ2 ∂2 ṽ ∂2 ṽ

p∞ ∂p̃ ν
2
ũ + 2 ṽ =− + 2 2
+ 2
L ∂x̃ L ∂ỹ ρUe ∂ỹ Ue L L ∂x̃ ∂ỹ
Using Eq. (19) and Eq. (21) results
1 ∂2 ṽ ∂2 ṽ

1 ∂ṽ 1 ∂ṽ ∂p̃ 1
ũ + ṽ =− + +
Re ∂x̃ Re ∂ỹ ∂ỹ Re Re ∂x̃ 2 ∂ỹ 2
If Re 1 then
∂p̃
=0 (25)
∂ỹ

Using the boundary layer approximations we get finally
The continuity equation
∂u ∂v
+ =0 (from Eq. 3)
∂x ∂y
Using Eq. (22), the momentum conservation along x is
∂u ∂u 1 ∂p ∂2 u
u +v =− +ν 2 (26)
∂x ∂y ρ ∂x ∂y
In the same way, using Eq. (25), the momentum conservation along y is
∂p
=0 (27)
∂y

The boundary condition of the boundary layer equations are
No slip condition
u(x,0) = 0 (28)
v (x,0) = 0 (29)
The asymptotic condition
u(x,y → ∞) = Ue (30)
This last condition implies that

∂u
(x,y → ∞) = 0 (31)
∂y
∂2 u
(x,y → ∞) = 0 (32)
∂y 2
Applying the asymptotic conditions to Eq. (26) gives
dUe 1 dpe
Ue =− (33)
dx ρ dx

The main boundary layer theory approximations
The boundary layer is a very thin region close to the wall
δL (from Eq. (6))
The streamlines are almost parallel to the wall so the tangential velocity is
much higher than the normal velocity

δ
O [V ] = O Ue (from Eq. (12))
L
From the previous conditions implies that the pressure is almost constant
across the boundary layer
∂p
=0 (from Eq. (27))
∂y
The Reynolds number must be large to the boundary layer theory be valid
2
L
O [Re] = O 2 (from Eq. (20))
δ
The velocity on the wall and the exterior velocity are imposed boundary
conditions
Let us consider the laminar boundary layer equations in zero pressure gradient
∂u ∂v
+ =0
∂x ∂y
∂u ∂u ∂2 u
u +v =ν 2
∂x ∂y ∂y
In 1908, Blasius proposed a series solution to this system of equations
To obtain a solution Blasius used the principle of similarity
Through the use of a wise choice of variables, the system of equations can be
transformed in one non-linear differential equation independent of x

Blasius noted from a series of experiments that for a flow over a flat plate the
velocity profiles were similar

We can estimated the grow of a laminar boundary layer using

δ 1
∼ √ (from Eq. (19))
L Re
Using the same reasoning, for any x along the flat plat,
r
δ(x) 1 ν 1
∼ r = = √
x Ue x Ue x Rex
ν
or
r
νx
δ(x) ∼
Ue
So, we can perform the following coordinate transform
r
y Ue y
η= r =y ∝ (34)
νx νx δ(x)
Ue

If we use the stream function we have

∂ψ
u= (35)
∂y
∂ψ
v =− (36)
∂x
which satisfies immediately the continuity equation
If we have similar velocity profiles they must be only function of η so

u 1 ∂ψ df
= = (37)
Ue Ue ∂y dη

We can perform the change of variables using (see Eq. (34))

r
∂η Ue
= (38)
∂y νx
to compute the stream function
r
1 ∂ψ ∂y ∂η 1 ∂ψ Ue ∂ψ 1 df
= = √ = (39)
Ue ∂y ∂η ∂y Ue ∂η νx ∂η Ue νx dη
Integrating in η gives
p
ψ = Ue νx f (40)
assuming the integration constant as zero without loss of generality

The velocity v can be computed from

" r #
∂ψ ∂ p p df ∂η 1 Ue ν
v =− =− Ue νx f = − Ue νx + f
∂x ∂x dη ∂x 2 x
r (41)
1 Ue ν df
= η −f
2 x dη
Computing the velocity derivatives and simplifying (omitting the details...), we
get the Blasius equation
d3 f f d2 f
+ =0 (42)
dη3 2 dη2
subjected to the following boundary conditions
u(x,0) = 0 ⇒ df /dη = 0 em η = 0
v (x,0) = 0 ⇒ f =0 em η = 0
u(x,∞) = Ue ⇒ df /dη = 1 em η = ∞
Slides 37 through 46 present the derivation of a numerical solution and a

Mathematica “notebook”
Numerical solution of the Blasius equation (see slide 43)

η f (η) u df d2 f
Ue = dη dη2
0.0 0.0000 0.0000 0.3321
0.5 0.0415 0.1659 0.3309
1.0 0.1656 0.3298 0.3230
1.5 0.3701 0.4868 0.3026
2.0 0.6500 0.6298 0.2668
2.5 0.9963 0.7513 0.2174
3.0 1.3968 0.8460 0.1614
3.5 1.8377 0.9130 0.1078
4.0 2.3057 0.9555 0.0642
4.5 2.7901 0.9795 0.0340
5.0 3.2833 0.9915 0.0159
5.5 3.7806 0.9969 0.0066
6.0 4.2796 0.9990 0.0024
Based on data from table

r
u Ue
= 0.99 ⇒ η = 5 = δ(x)
Ue νx
We can define the boundary layer thickness as
δ(x) 5 1
= √ ∝ √ (43)
x Rex x

From the numerical solution we can plot of the dimensionless velocities along x
and y (see slides 44 and 45)
1.0 2.0
0.8
1.5
0.6
1.0
0.4
0.2 0.5
0.0 0.0
0 2 4 6 8 10 0 2 4 6 8 10
Eq. (41) shows how to write the normal velocity in dimensionless form
r
x 1 df
v = η −f
Ue ν 2 dη

Comparison of the Blasius solution with experimental data

1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4 5
1..08 × 10
Blasius 1.82 × 10
5
5
3.64 × 10
5
5.46 × 10
5
0.2 7.28 × 10
0
10 20 30 40 50 60 70

The shear stress is related with the derivative (see Eq. (34) and Eq. (37))
r
d2 f ∂η Ue d2 f

∂u ∂ df
= Ue = Ue 2 = Ue
∂y ∂y dη dη ∂y νx dη2
On the wall
r
Ue d2 f

∂u
τw = µ = µUe
∂y η=0 νx dη2 η=0
with (see table of slide 30)
d2 f

= 0.3321
dη2 η=0
1
Because τw ∝ √ ⇒ decreases moving along x(↑) due to the grow of
x
boundary layer δ with x, see velocity profiles of slide 25

The friction coefficient is defined as

τw
Cf = 1 (44)
2
ρUe2
Using Blasius solution
ν d2 f
r
0.6642
Cf = 2 = √
Ue x dη2 η=0 Rex
The drag coefficient of a plate with area A = Lb resulting from the wall friction
force D
RL Z Z
D b τw dx 1 L τw 1 L 0.6642
CD = 1 2 = 1 0 2 = dx = √ dx
2
ρUe A 2
ρUe Lb L 0 12 ρUe2 L 0 Rex
so
ZL
1 1.3284
CD = Cf dx = (45)
L 0 ReL

Example 1
Air at 20◦ and 1 atm flows over a flat plate in zero pressure gradient
Assume hp = 0.002 m, L = 0.5 m, Ue = 15 m/s and ν = 1.5 × 10−5 m2 /s
Can we use the values of p2 and p4 as the static pressure at 1 and 2? Compare
the values of p2 and p4 .

Example 1
Using the Blasius laminar boundary layer solution compute:

1. The manometer readings h1 and h2 .
2. The wall shear stress at section A and B.
3. The normal velocity v for sections A and B at the distances from the wall
of 0, hp and δ. Comment.
4. The drag force from the leading edge of the plate to section B.
5. The distance x for which h2 = 0.008 m of H2 O.
6. The distance x for which τw = 0.07 Pa.

Supplemental material
The following slides are presented briefly in the lectures
Can be omitted without loss of continuity

Numerical solution of the Blasius equation
The Blasius equation
d3 f f d2 f
3
+ =0 (from Eq. 42)
dη 2 dη2
is subject to the following boundary conditions

df
u(x,0) = 0 ⇒ =0 em η = 0
dη
v (x,0) = 0 ⇒ f =0 em η = 0
df
u(x,∞) = Ue ⇒ =1 em η = ∞
dη

The Blasius equation has no known analytical solution
Is a 3th order ordinary differential equation ⇒ 3 boundary conditions
Is a boundary value problem

conditions in the two domain boundaries η = 0 and η = ∞
the numerical solution is obtained iteratively estimating d2 f /dη2 at η = 0

until we get df /dη = 1 at η → ∞ !!!
This is called the shooting method

Another way to find the numerical solution of the Blasius equation using
Mathematica is to apply the Töpfer transform
the idea is to transform the boundary value problem into a initial
value problem
Let us scale the problem using a constant λ such that
η∗ = λ1/3 η
f ∗ = λ−1/3 f
giving
df ∗ df
= λ−2/3 ,
dη∗ dη
d2 f ∗ 2
−1 d f
2 = λ
dη ∗ dη2
d3 f ∗ 3
−4/3 d f
3 = λ
dη ∗ dη3

Replacing in the Blasius equation we obtain an equivalent equation
d3 f ∗ f ∗ d2 f ∗
3 + =0 (46)
dη∗ 2 dη∗2
Let us integrate Eq. (46) between 0 and η∗max and define λ such that
df
(ηmax ) = 1, resulting
dη
∗ −3/2
df ∗
λ= (η )
dη∗ max
f = λ1/3 f ∗
Now we have an initial value problem
f∗ =0 → at η∗ = 0
df ∗
=0 → at η∗ = 0
dη∗
d2 f ∗
=1 → at η∗ = 0 (a given value)
dη∗2
Numerical solution of the Blasius equations using

Töpfer transform
Usind NDSolve for the numerical integration
1
In[2]:= Topfer = NDSolveB:fs '''@ΗsD + fs ''@ΗsD fs@ΗsD 0, fs@0D 0, fs '@0D 0, fs ''@0D 1>,
2
fs, 8Ηs, 0, 10<F;
Mathematica give us the solution in form of a InterpolatingFunction that we call interpolTopfer[Η]
In[5]:= interpolTopfer@Ηs_D = fs@ΗsD . First@TopferD;
Computing Λ
In[6]:= Λ = HinterpolTopfer '@10DL-32

Out[6]= 0.332057
The solution of the Blasius equation using interpolTopfer[Ηs] is
In[7]:= blasius@Η_D := Λ13 interpolTopferAΛ13 ΗE

Verifying the boundary conditions of the Blasius equation
In[8]:= blasius@0D
Out[8]= 0.
In[9]:= blasius '@0D
Out[9]= 1.29975 ´ 10-20
In[10]:= blasius '@10D
Out[10]= 1.

Table with the Blasius solution
Tbl = TableFormBTable@8
PaddedForm@Chop@0.5 * nD, 82, 1<D,
PaddedForm@Chop@blasius@0.5 * nDD, 86, 4<D,
PaddedForm@Chop@blasius '@0.5 * nDD, 86, 4<D,
PaddedForm@Chop@blasius ''@0.5 * nDD, 86, 4<D<,
8n, 0, 12<D, TableHeadings -> :None, :"Η", "f@ΗD", "

u
=f'@ΗD", "f''@ΗD">>F
Ue
Export@".Blasius_Tbl.pdf", TblD;
Out[40]//TableForm=
u
Η f@ΗD Ue
=f'@ΗD f''@ΗD
0.0 0.0000 0.0000 0.3321
0.5 0.0415 0.1659 0.3309
1.0 0.1656 0.3298 0.3230
1.5 0.3701 0.4868 0.3026
2.0 0.6500 0.6298 0.2668
2.5 0.9963 0.7513 0.2174
3.0 1.3968 0.8460 0.1614
3.5 1.8377 0.9130 0.1078
4.0 2.3057 0.9555 0.0642
4.5 2.7901 0.9795 0.0340
5.0 3.2833 0.9915 0.0159
5.5 3.7806 0.9969 0.0066
6.0 4.2796 0.9990 0.0024

u(Η) - dimensionless longitudinal velocity profile
In[15]:= u@Η_D = blasius '@ΗD;
graphux = Plot@u@ΗD, 8Η, 0, 10<, Frame ® 8True, True, True, True<,

FrameLabel ® 8"Η", "uUe"<, PlotStyle ® 8Thickness@0.01D<,
BaseStyle ® 8FontSize ® 26, FontFamily ® "Arial"<,
GridLines ® Automatic, ImageSize ® 400D
Export@".Blasius_ux.pdf", graphuxD;
1.0
0.8
0.6
uUe
Out[42]= 0.4
0.2
0.0
0 2 4 6 8 10
Η
v(Η) - dimensionless normal velocity profile
In[20]:= v@Η_D = Η blasius '@ΗD - blasius@ΗD;
graphuy = PlotBv@ΗD, 8Η, 0, 10<, Frame ® 8True, True, True, True<,
FrameLabel ® :"Η", "v x HΝ UeL ">, PlotRange ® 80, 2<, PlotStyle ® 8Thickness@0.01D<,
BaseStyle ® 8FontSize ® 26, FontFamily ® "Arial"<, GridLines ® Automatic, ImageSize ® 400F

Export@".Blasius_uy.pdf", graphuyD;
2.0
x HΝ UeL
1.5
1.0
Out[44]=
0.5
v
0.0
0 2 4 6 8 10
Η

Fluid Mechanics II: Boundary Layer Theory - 2015/04/07 Jo Ao C. C. Henriques // Joaochenriques@tecnico - Ulisboa.pt

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Fluid Mechanics II

Boundary layer theory - 2015/04/07

JCCH / Fluid Mechanics II / Boundary layer theory - 2015/04/07 1/1

JCCH / Fluid Mechanics II / Boundary layer theory - 2015/04/07 2/1

Introduction to the boundary layer concept

Two-dimensional laminar boundary layer equations

Blasius laminar boundary layer similarity solution

JCCH / Fluid Mechanics II / Boundary layer theory - 2015/04/07 3/1

Straight and parallel fluid element paths

JCCH / Fluid Mechanics II / Boundary layer theory - 2015/04/07 4/1

Station A - Consider a uniform (inviscid) flow in front of a flat

JCCH / Fluid Mechanics II / Boundary layer theory - 2015/04/07 5/1

Shear stresses between layers

JCCH / Fluid Mechanics II / Boundary layer theory - 2015/04/07 6/1

JCCH / Fluid Mechanics II / Boundary layer theory - 2015/04/07 7/1

Continuity equation (mass conservation)

Conservation of momentum along x

Conservation of momentum along y

JCCH / Fluid Mechanics II / Boundary layer theory - 2015/04/07 8/1

Let us consider a flat plate of length L

JCCH / Fluid Mechanics II / Boundary layer theory - 2015/04/07 9/1

Therefore, we have the following orders of magnitude (O)

We already know the relation between the δ and L, Eq. (6)

If we analyse the orders of magnitude of each term of the continuity equation

JCCH / Fluid Mechanics II / Boundary layer theory - 2015/04/07 10/1

Let us define the following dimensionless variables with unitary order of

JCCH / Fluid Mechanics II / Boundary layer theory - 2015/04/07 11/1

The order of magnitude of the term of the continuity equation are

To have the same order of magnitude, the order of magnitude of V is

This relation clearly shows that

JCCH / Fluid Mechanics II / Boundary layer theory - 2015/04/07 12/1

To analyse the order of magnitude of the terms of the momentum equations we

and the dimensionless pressure

JCCH / Fluid Mechanics II / Boundary layer theory - 2015/04/07 13/1

In dimensionless form, the conservation of momentum along x is (divided by ρ)

JCCH / Fluid Mechanics II / Boundary layer theory - 2015/04/07 14/1

Using the order of magnitude of V , Eq. (12),

JCCH / Fluid Mechanics II / Boundary layer theory - 2015/04/07 15/1

Using the definition of the Reynolds number

∂ũ ∂ũ p∞ ∂p̃ 1 ∂2 ũ 1 L2 ∂2 ũ

This equation leads to the second most important assumption in boundary

JCCH / Fluid Mechanics II / Boundary layer theory - 2015/04/07 16/1

From Eq. (18) we get

JCCH / Fluid Mechanics II / Boundary layer theory - 2015/04/07 17/1

The order of magnitude of (C) is

∂ũ ∂ũ ∂p̃ 1 ∂2 ũ

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In dimensionless form, the conservation of momentum along y is (divided by ρ)

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Using the order of magnitude of V , Eq. (12),

Using Eq. (19) and Eq. (21) results

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Using the boundary layer approximations we get finally

The continuity equation

Using Eq. (22), the momentum conservation along x is

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This last condition implies that

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The boundary layer is a very thin region close to the wall

δL (from Eq. (6))

In 1908, Blasius proposed a series solution to this system of equations

To obtain a solution Blasius used the principle of similarity

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δL (from Eq. (6))

In[5]:= interpolTopfer@Ηs_D = fs@ΗsD . First@TopferD;

In[6]:= Λ = HinterpolTopfer '@10DL-32

In[7]:= blasius@Η_D := Λ13 interpolTopferAΛ13 ΗE