The Effect of Salt on Plants Growth

Salts in the soil water may inhibit plant growth for two reasons.

First, the presence of salt in the soil solution reduces the ability of the
plant to take up water, and this leads to reductions in the growth rate.
This is referred to as the osmotic or water-deficit effect of salinity.
Second, if excessive amounts of salt enter the plant in the transpiration
stream there will be injury to cells in the transpiring leaves and this may
cause further reductions in growth. This is called the salt-specific or ion-
excess effect of salinity.

The definition of salt tolerance is usually the percent biomass production

in saline soil relative to plants in non-saline soil, after growth for an
extended period of time. For slow-growing, long-lived, or uncultivated
species it is often difficult to assess the reduction in biomass production,
so percent survival is often used.

As salinity is often caused by rising water tables, it can be accompanied

by waterlogging. Waterlogging itself inhibits plant growth and also
reduces the ability of the roots to exclude salt, thus increasing the uptake
rate of salt and its accumulation in shoots.
Sprinkler Irrigation:
In Sprinkler Irrigation technique, water is sprinkled into the air and
allowed to fall on the bottom surface similar to rain.
In this Irrigation, Water is distributed through a system of pipes
sometimes by pumping. it's then sprayed into the air through sprinklers
so it breaks up into little water drops that fall to the bottom.

In Bangladesh furrow irrigation is preferred over sprinkler irrigation

because sprinkler irrigation is very costly process.
Followings are the major advantages of furrow irrigation:

 Mass Area Irrigation

 Cost-efficient method
 Time and Labour saving method
 Optimum water distribution
(a) answer:
(b) answer:

Canal Lining: Canal Lining is an impermeable layer provided for the

bed and sides of canal to improve the life and discharge capacity of
canal.
60 to 80% of water lost through seepage in an unlined canal can be
saved by construction canal lining.

Advantages of Canal Lining

1. Seepage Reduction
2. Prevention of Water Logging
3. Increase in Commanded Area
4. Increase in Channel Capacity
5. Less Maintenance
6. Safety Against Floods

The factors which are responsible for selecting a particular materials for
a particular project in canal lining are...

1. Economy
2. Durability
3. Maintenance
4. Stability
5. Erosion resistance
6. Impermeability
7. Hydraulic efficiency
(c) answer:

i) Watershed Management is a term used to describe the process of

implementing land use practices and water management practices to
protect and improve the quality of the water and other natural resources
within a watershed by managing the use of those land and water
resources in a comprehensive manner.

ii) FLOOD PLAIN ZONING Flood plain zoning means dividing the
entire flood area into different zones and to restrict the occupancy of the
different zones of the flood plain to uses which will suffer little or no
damage during floods. It is non - structural flood mitigation measure.

iii) Artesian Aquifer

iv) Design Flood

V) Duty of Water (D)

Duty is defined as the number of hectares of land that is irrigated for the
complete growth of a crop by supplying 1-meter cubes per second of
water continuously throughout the crop or base period ‘B’ of the
respective crop.

Duty gives a relation between the volume of water and the area of the
crops that are harvested.
(a) Answer:
(b) Answer:
(c) Answer:
(a) Answer:
(c) Answer:

Factors affecting soil cement stabilization:

Those factors which are most important for a quality control standpoint
in cement stabilization are:
1. pulverization
2. cement content
3. moisture content
4. uniformity of mixing
5. time sequence of operations
6. compaction
7. curing.
(a) Answer:
Causes of accidents on roads:

1. Road and Road Conditions:

Faulty geometric design components like sight distance, shoulders,
super-elevation, transitions and inadequate traffic control devices cause
accidents, as do slippery road conditions with inadequate friction leading
to skidding and pot holes, ruts and damaged conditions of the surface.

2. Road Users:
The drivers of vehicles can cause accidents through rash driving and
excessive speed, violation of traffic rules, traffic signs and signals,
through fatigue due to excessive continuous driving, alcoholism and
drunken driving. In addition, bus passengers can cause accidents while
getting into and alighting from moving vehicles, and distracting the
driver’s attention. Pedestrians using the carriageway and violating
regulations can also cause accidents.

3. Vehicles:
Mechanical defects of vehicles like failure of brakes, tyre burst, and
steering system invariably lead to traffic accidents.

4. Weather:
Unfavourable weather conditions such as fog, heavy rainfall, dust and
smoke render driving unsafe, leading to accidents.
5. Miscellaneous:
Stray animals, unmanned level crossings, advertisement boards and
hoardings affecting visibility and distracting the drivers’ attention and a
host of other such things may also cause road accidents.

Preventive measures to reduce accident rates:

(1) Engineering
(2) Enforcement
(3) Education

(1) Engineering Measures:

The following are some of the important measures which fall in this
category:
(i) Proper design of geometric elements of the road like horizontal
curves, super elevation, vertical curves and gradients, carriageway and
shoulders, sight-distance and road intersections.
(ii) Speed control measures like rumble strips.
(iii) “Before and after” studies of preventive measures to study the
effectiveness of these for reduction of accident rate.
(iv) Road lighting and illumination, including proper maintenance.
(v) Preventive maintenance of vehicles, brakes, steering, and lights.
Usage of seat belts and air bags in cars.

(2) Enforcement Measures:

These measures include:
(i) Traffic regulations like one-way traffic.
(ii) Traffic signs and signals – taking cognisance and observing them.
(iii) Speed zoning or speed limits for different stretches.
(iv) Control of pedestrian traffic through pedestrian crossings and
signals.
(v) Parking control measures.
(vi) Training and supervision of drivers including strictness in issuing
driving license for different purposes.
(vii) Testing of drivers for vision and reaction time at suitable intervals.
(viii) Channelisation by providing separate lanes for cars, buses trucks,
as also cycle tracks if the cycle traffic volume demands.

(3) Education Measures:

These measures include:
(i) Education on road safety in schools and educational institutions.
(ii) Use of mass media like print and electronic media, films and
documentaries for road safety propaganda.
(iii) Use of helmets by two-wheeler rides.
(iv) Organisation of safety campaigns like “safety week” from time to
time.
(v) Education of road users.

(b) Answer:
(c) Answer:
i) Level crossing
A level crossing is the point at which the railway crosses over either a
public or private road on the same level.
There are many different types of level crossings including road level
crossings for vehicles, and pedestrian level crossings for people. All
crossings have a form of protection, and the users has a responsibility to
contribute to the safety of a level crossing. The users should aware the
dangerous may occurs at level crossing area. Users are responsible to
keep themself or others safe during use a level crossing area.
There are three main type of level crossing which is automatic operated
level crossing, manual operated level crossing and open level crossing.
iii) Negative Super elevation
Clayey Soil derives its shearing strength from the following:

1. Resistance due to interlocking of particles

2. Adhesion between soil particles or cohesion
Various methods of determination of vertical stress at a
point:
Solution:
Answer: Most sieve analyses are carried out dry. But there are some
applications which can only be carried out by wet sieving. This is the
case when the sample which has to be analysed is e.g. a suspension
which must not be dried; or when the sample is a very fine powder
which tends to agglomerate (mostly < 45 µm) – in a dry sieving process
this tendency would lead to a clogging of the sieve meshes and this
would make a further sieving process impossible. A wet sieving process
is set up like a dry process: the sieve stack is clamped onto the sieve
shaker and the sample is placed on the top sieve. Above the top sieve a
water-spray nozzle is placed which supports the sieving process
additionally to the sieving motion. The rinsing is carried out until the
liquid which is discharged through the receiver is clear. Sample residues
on the sieves have to be dried and weighed. When it comes to wet
sieving it is very important not to change the sample in its volume (no
swelling, dissolving or reaction with the liquid).
i) SPT
SPT stands for The Standard Penetration Test.
This test is also known as "In-situ penetration test" of soil. The main
aim of this test is to determine the Geo-technical engineering
properties of subsurface layers of soil, class of soil and to obtain the
penetration resistance or N - value.
The test is extremely useful for determining the relative density and the
angle of shearing resistance of cohesionless soils. It can also be used to
determine the unconfined compressive strength of cohesive soils.

CPT:
II) Compaction:
Compaction is the dynamic process of increasing the density of soil by
expulsion of air thus increase the bearing capacity of soil.

Consolidation:
The compression of saturated soil under steady static pressure is termed
as consolidation which is completely due to expulsion of water from the
voids. Consolidation is generally related to fine-grained soils such as
silts and clays.
III) Friction Circle Method Of Stability Analysis:
IV) Over Consolidation Ratio