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(9789004351257 - Ancient Greeks West and East) Some Classical Subjects On The Late Hellenistic Sarmatian Phalerae (To The Origin of Phalerae) PDF
(9789004351257 - Ancient Greeks West and East) Some Classical Subjects On The Late Hellenistic Sarmatian Phalerae (To The Origin of Phalerae) PDF
(9789004351257 - Ancient Greeks West and East) Some Classical Subjects On The Late Hellenistic Sarmatian Phalerae (To The Origin of Phalerae) PDF
Mikhail Treister
* The author is grateful to Erika Simon for her very helpful advise, concerning
the subject of phalna from Kurchanskaya; to Sergei Yatsenko and Nataliya Smirnova-
for consultations on Sarmatian costume and Graeco-Bactrian coinage respectively;
to Ursula Knigge for the photographs of a silver disk from Kerameikos and a clay
mould from Larissa; to John K. Papadopoulos and Despoina Tsiafakis for the photo-
graphs of the silver dish and phalera£ from the J. Paul Getty Museum.
1 Most recently this point of view was developed by F. Kaul ( 1995, 14-5) that
"both the discs from Stara Zagora and from Paris fall however comfortably into
the Thracian artistic style. The discs could quite conceivably have come into
Mithridates' ownership as a princely gift from a Thracian kings".
Smirnov (1953, 34), Marazov (1979, 64) and others have already
pointed out, is that at least one part of the composition was already
known among the Sarmatians hundred years earlier, namely on prome-
topidion from Fedulovo (Fig. 3) (Spitsyn 1909, fig. 43; Zasetskaya 1966,
31-2, fig. 5; Cat. Leningrad 1985, No. 35; Treister 1996b, 107, fig.
29), which is most probably a Bosporan version of the subject (Treister
1996b, 106-19). The right part of the scene on the phalera from
Severskaya is even far stylised. I do not know the direct prototype
of the left part of the composition, however, beyond doubt, its sub-
ject was widespread among the Sarmatians. Evidence for this is pro-
vided, for instance, by the phalera from Taganrog, which was kept
before the 191 7 revolution in the private collection of Romanovich
in Rostov-on-Don. Rostovtzeff (1926, 248; 1993, 42) briefly described
its decoration: a panther to the left, with a standing figure of Dionysos
behind with a thyrsos in his right hand. Further indirect proof is given
by its later use on the phalerae made of gilt brass from the horseman
burial 9 in the necropolis of Tsemdolina near Novorossiisk, dating
to the early 1st century AD., representing Bacchic scenes with Eros
sitting astride a panther (fig. 4) (Malyshev and Treister 1994a, 32,
fig. 3; 19946, 47, Abb. 6-8; 49-52, No. 4, Taf. 3). It is notewor-
thy that the medallions, originally used for vessels were adopted as
phalerae, most probably by the last owner-a practice most probably
spread widely by the Sarmatians (Malyshev and Treister 19946, 52).
The grapevine scroll framing the composition on the Severskaya
phalera, has a direct prototype on the silver medallion of the bowl
in the Getty Museum (Pfrommer 1993, No. 127) with the image of
Dionysus and Ariadna (Fig. 5). The way the scroll ends are formed
on that medallion allows Pfrommer (1993, 66) to suggest "an east-
ern workshop in the Seleucid sphere of influence and perhaps a date
not earlier than the later second century". 2 He maintains that "for
the figural scene on the medallion, the silversmith cited and reinter-
preted earlier Hellenistic prototypes, such as representations of 'Eros
and Psyche"' (Pfrommer 1993, 218, No. 127). The barely recognisable
prototype of one of the elements of lower framing is a double-lotus
palmette, a typical feature of 4th century gold necklaces. 3 The level
scenes, e.g. on the Roman paste with standing Dionysos and Ariadne (Gaspari 1986,
No. 194); on the 3rd century A.D. silver dish from Pendshab in the British Museum
(Rostovtzeff 1926, pl. 7; Dalton 1964, 58-9, pl. XXXIII; Haussig 1992, No. 196),
and the 5th century A.D. dish from Lyakhsh (Yakubov 1985, 73, fig. 2).
3 From Nymphaeum: ca. 400 B.C. (Vickers 1979, 41-2, pl. Xla-b; mentioned:
Williams and Ogden 1994, 153); Panticapaeum, ca. 400-380 B.C. (Miller 1979, 11,
pl. 5c; Williams and Ogden 1994, No. 94); Temir-Gora, ca. 400-375 B.C. (Miller
1979, 11, pl. 5a); Homolion, second half of the 4th century B.C. (Miller 1979,
10-1, pl. 4a, e; Williams and Ogden 1994, 153); Tarent, ca. 350-330 B.C. (Miller
1979, 11, pl. 5b; Williams and Ogden 1994, No. 135); Oguz Barrow, ca. 330-310
B.C. (Boltrik, Fialko 1991, 128, Taf. 11, 13); Karagodeuakhsh, ca. 325-300 B.C.
(Artamonow 1970, Abb. 319; Galanina and Grach 1986, fig. 254; Anfimov 1987,
ills. on pp. 160-1; Cat. Venice 1987, No. 102).
" E.g., with the images of Shapur II, ca. 310 ·320 A.D.: Trever and Lukonin
1987, No. 2, figs. 6-7; of Shapur III: Trever and Lukonin 1987, No. 4, figs. 10-1;
Varahran, ca. 390-420 A.D.: Trever and Lukonin 1987, No. 7, figs. 14-5; Hosrov
II: Trever and Lukonin 1987, No. 9, figs. 18-9; hunting king, first half of the 7th
century A.D.: Trever and Lukonin 1987, No. I 0, figs. 20-1 etc.
5 About the development of Iranian and Parthian belts in general see: Moorey
I+.
3e
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Mikhail Treister - 9789004351257
Fi,g. I. Finds of /1/uilnru· of the Hellenistic period in Eastern Europe (after l\Iord\·intseya 1996b. 14-9. fig. I: added bY the author:. I -
via University College London
Galichc: 2- Stara Zagora: 3 - Hcrastrau: 4 - Surcca: 5 - T n·rditsc: 6 - Yanchokrak: 7 - Bulakhm·ka: 8 - Balaklcya: 9 - Starobel,;k: I 0
- Klimcnkm·skii: I I - Antipm·ka: 12 - Taganrog: 13 - Fcdulm·: 14 - l\"ovodzherilin·skaya: 15 - Korcnm·sk: 16 - \'oronczhskaya: 17 -
.-\khtanizm·skava: 18 - llspcnskaya: 19 - Scn·rskaya: 20 - Sergcn·skaya: 21 - Zhutoni: 22 - Kri\·aya Luka: 23 - '.\"m·lluz,·nsk: 2 I -
\'lllodarka: 25 - Prokhorn,·ka: 26 - Kurchanskaya.
Fig. 2. Phalera from Scvcrskaya. State Historical Museum. l\losrnw. Photograph A.M. Bochkarcv
(aficr Anfimov 1987, 188).
Fig. 9. Bronze l\Iatrix. The l\letropolitan l\luseum of Art, New York. Rogers Fund, 1920. In\'. 20.2.24. Neg. No. 47853.
Courtesy of the l\lctropolitan l\luseum of Art.
Fig. I 0. l'l/il/n11 Crom Yanrhokrak. State Historical l\luscum. Im·. l 130(i. Dr:l\,·ing: I.I. Gushrhina ( I %9.
L'i. fig. I. 2).
boots decorated with relief dots, and folded chlamys, covering his left
shoulder and arm in petasos on his head with caduceus in the right
hand stretched forward. His head is shown in profile to the left, and
the god, undoubtedly Hermes, is looking at the goddess sitting on
the goat. In the upper part of the central field over the goat's head
there is represented in profile to the left a naked winged Eros with
a wreath in his outstretched hands. One more Eros is shown in ver-
tical position behind the goddess's back. Below the goat's legs there
are represented galloping panthers, their front legs stretched forward,
and a diagonal staircase, its upper end below the front right hoof
the goat. The central field of the relief is decorated with numerous
symbols among which just over the head of the goddess there is
shown a half-moon, while her figure is framed with six-, seven- and
eight-pointed stars.
The central embossed field of the relief is framed with a narrow
frieze decorated with stamped zigzag pattern, dividing it into trian-
gles; those pointing towards the centre of the relief decorated with
dots inside, and the others with vertical notches.
The Kurchanskaya phalera belongs to a circle of monuments which
has recently attracted the attention of scholars, primarily because of
the find at the Athenian Kerameikos in the destruction level of the
late 4th-early 3rd century B.C. of building Z of a silver disc 8.3 cm
in diameter with an image of Aphrodite sitting on a goat (Knigge
1982, 153-70, Taf. 31; Axmann 1986, 8, Taf. 2, 5; Pirenne-Delforge
1994, 36f).
On the Kerameikos medallion (Fig. 7) the goat is galloping to the
left, not to the right and the goddess is embracing its neck rather
than holding an object. Her left arm is turned slightly behind, but
not so high as on the disc from Kurchanskaya. She is holding firmly
in her hand the end of drapery, the edge of which is hanging ver-
tically down, forming folds in the shape of a swallow's tail, while
the cloth is draped across the front of her body. Like the Kurchanskaya
relief, the Kerameikos disc depicts below small galloping baby-goats
or rams and a staircase beneath the goat's legs. The staircase is dis-
proportionately large compared with that on the Kurchanskaya relief;
it is shown on the background of the goat's protome crossing the
disc and making a small segment on its left side with a figure of a
naked Hermes in boots and petasos standing on tip toe in profile to
the left. His right shoulder is draped with folded clothes. On the
upper part of the disc there is a flying Eros with his right arm
stretched forward (there is only one figure of Eros on the disc from
the Kerameikos); behind the goat there is a flying pigeon. Also on
the upper part of the disc, as on the Kurchanskaya relief there is a
half-moon with its ends downwards, although it is situated not above
the head of the goddess, but between it and the head of the goat,
as if connecting them, while the spare place in the relief field is cov-
ered with seven- and eight-pointed stars of various dimensions. Having
analysed the stylistic peculiarities of the images on the Kerameikos
medallion, U. Knigge (1982, 154) dated it to ca. 370-360 B.C.
Similar treatment of subject and even the details of composition
may be seen on the semi-circular votive relief of Attic workmanship
from the Museum of Sparta, dating either to the late 4th century
B.C. (Mitropolou 1975, 7-8, No. I), or to the Hellenistic period (Knigge,
1982, 158, Taf. 33, I). The treatment of the fold of the himation over
the back of the goddess is similar, although her pose is slightly
different, she is sitting turned to the left. As on the Kurchanskaya
relief, Eros is shown behind the goat's tail; while the goat is also
represented at gallop. The staircase is shown behind the outstretched
hoofs of the goat in the lower right edge of the relief.
A terracotta votive relief of similar shape from the vicinity of
Kerch is kept in the Hermitage. The goddess is represented in a
similar pose, although her arms are not uplifted; below the goat's
legs there are shown two small galloping baby-goats and to the left
of Aphrodite there is a vertical image of Eros without wreath (Terracotta
Statuettes 197 4, 18, No. 29 [5th century B.C.], pl. 5, 5; Mitropolou
1975, 16, No. 9).
A votive relief of similar shape with an image of Aphrodite with
two small baby-goats and a vertical figure of Eros, dating to the
early 2nd century B.C., originates from Macedonia (Adam-Belene
1994, 75-6, 82, fig. 7; Cat. Hannover 1994, No. 356).
The relief on a circular marble disk, kept in the Louvre and orig-
inating from Athens, is also dated by E. Mitropolou (197 5, 13-4,
No. 5) to the late 4th century B.C. Below the goat's legs there are
two small goats galloping to the right. The pose of the goddess and
the treatment of the folds of her himation are reminiscent of the
images on the reliefs from the Museums of Sparta and T emryuk.
Similar subjects are also found on the reliefs decorating bronze
m1rrors.
Thus, on the mid-4th century B.C. mirror from the Louvre found
in Corinth (Ziichner 1942, KS47, pl. 6; Hackens and Levy 1965,
560, fig. 20; Mitropolou 1975, 17-8, No. IO) and on the mirror
from Eretria kept in Athens (Ziichner 1942, KS 5; Hackens and
Levy 1965, 561-2, figs. 21-2; Miller, 1979, pl. 23a) the goddess is
holding the end of her himation in her right arm lifted upwards. The
himation of Aphrodite sitting on a goat is treated similarly on 2nd
century B.C. gold medallions from Delos; there are two eight-pointed
stars in the field on each of them. In the lower part of the medal-
lions below the goats staircases are shown lying horizontally (Hackens
and Levy 1965, 565, fig. 23; 55 7, 563, 565, pl. 23; Mitropolou l 97 5,
2 l-3, No. l 5-6; Miller I 979, pl. 23c-d). A similar composition is
also represented on a gold medallion 2.55 cm in diameter from the
Paul Canellopoulos collection originating from Syria. However, unlike
the Delian medallions, it has no mirror, and the eight-pointed stars
are replaced by three six-petal rosettes with petals in shape of dots
(Laffineur 1980, No. l l 8, fig. l 30). On the medallion of a necklace
from Pelinna in Thessaly, Aphrodite, her torso naked, is holding the
edge of her himation with her hands lifted upwards; below her is an
image of a flying bird, while the front legs of the goat are touching
the staircase, shown diagonally in the right part of the relief (Miller
1979, 38-40, pl. 22a). There is also a silver medallion 6.4 cm in
diameter with analogous composition from the 2nd century B.C. bur-
ial in the region of Beroia (Romiopolou and Touratsoglou 1974;
Marazov I 979, 44, 52, fig. 30).
A cast pendant with an image of Aphrodite sitting on a goat in
a similar pose originates from Delos (Miller I 979, pl. 23, e). In a
similar pose there is a figure of Artemis on a deer. In her right hand
the goddes holds a burning torch, consisting of seven or five rods
of plain wire, bound in three places with three wires. The figures
are the pendants of earrings from the necropolis of Nymphaeum
dating to the last quarter of the 4th century B.C. (Silanteva I 959,
7, fig. 2, 2; Hoffmann and Davidson, 1965, 82, fig. l2f; Williams
and Ogden I 994, No. l l 0). An analogous composition with stars in
the field is represented on the bezel of the gold ring from the Ralph
Harari collection (Boardman 1976, No. 7).
An eight-pointed star is also shown in the field of a gold medal-
lion 3.4 cm in diameter from the Helene Stathatos collection. Kybele
and Hecate are represented in a carriage with a lion lead by a figure
of Hermes. It dates to either the late 5th-early 4th century B.C. or
the Hellenistic period (Amandry 1963, 220, No. 160, fig. l 25;
pl. 33; Jentel I 976, 366, pl. 60, fig. l 97; Naumann I 983, 230, 355,
No. 525; Reeder Williams 1987, 438, fig. 13; Bentz and Rumscheid
1989, 69; Siebert 1990, No. 404). A similar composition is repre-
sented on the relief silver disc (pyxis lid) from Olynthus, dating either
to the late 5th century B.C. (D.M. Robinson) or to the second quar-
ter of the 4th century B.C. (F. Naumann). In contrast to the Stathatos
medallion the figure of Hermes is draped; a half-moon is shown be-
tween the heads of Hecate and Kybele, between the ends of which
there is shown an eight-pointed star. Over the scene there is a figure
of a flying Eros with a wreath in his outstretched hands (Robinson
1941, 160-2, fig. 17; Naumann 1983, 158, 229-30, 355, No. 524,
Taf. 39, 2; Reeder Williams 1987, 438, fig. 14; Bentz and Rumscheid
1989, 69). The half-moon with a many-pointed star are seen in the
field of a silver gilt medallion with a carriage of Kybele of the Hel-
lenistic date found in Ai-Khanoum (Bernard 1974, 114; Pugachenkova
1979, 146, 157-8, fig. 169; Francfort 1984, 92-104, pl. XXXXI;
Pichikyan 1991, 256-8, fig. 52; mentioned Saprykin 1996, 116) as
well as on a gold foil plaque from Gorgippia, which is a part of a
diadem, representing a syncretic image of either Helios-Nero, as O.Y.
Neverov suggests, or Helios-Mithra, as S.Y. Saprykin (who, in conse-
quence, dates it earlier than Neverov-to the reign of Aspurgus) sup-
poses (CR St Petersburg 1906, 127, fig. 179; Cat. Leningrad 1980, No. 140;
Neverov 1982; 1986, 192-3, fig. 7; Saprykin 1983; Cat. Daoulas 1993,
130, No. 63.01; Treister 1996, 85, No. 2). Analogous scenes are rep-
resented on the medallions of Calenian relief gutti: there are three
eight-pointed stars in the fields, one shown between the ends of the
half-moon. 6
Numerous examples may be listed of toreutic works with zigzag
decoration, similar to the framing of the Kurchanskaya disc. A sim-
ilar ornamental band decorates a pair of silver discs each depicting
Thetis on a hippocamp, which are said to have been found in the
valley of Tempe in Thessaly (Marshall 1911, Nos. 3046-7; Jacobstahl
" Medallions: I) from Etruria in Wiirzburg (Pagenstecher 1909, 95, No, I 83e,
Taf. 20; Fuhrer Wu"rzburg 1975, 214; Jentel 1976, AP XI, 3e, 371 (4th-3rd cen-
turies B.C.?); CCCA IV, 84-5, No. 207, pl. 78 (3rd century B.C.); Naumann 1983,
356, No. 530 (3rd-2nd centuries B.C.); 2) from Apulia in Gottingen (Pagenstecher
1909, 95, No. 183a; Jentel 1976, AP XI 3g, 365-7, 372 (4th-3rd centuries B.C.?);
Naumann 1983, 355, No. 526 (3rd-2nd century B.C.); Bentz, Rumscheid 1989, 69,
Taf, 47, 4-6 (third quarter of the 4th century B.C.); 3) from Ascoli Satriano in
Tarentum (Jentel 1976, 370, AP XI, 3a (4th-3rd centuries B.C.?); and pieces of
unknown provenance: 4) in Stuttgart (Pagenstecher 1909, 95, No. 183d; Kunze-
Gotte 1965, 80, Taf. 68, 3, 7; Jentel 1976, AP XI, 3b, 370, pl. 60, fig. 198 (4th-3rd
centuries B.C.?); CCCA VII, No. 141; Naumann 1983, 356, No. 529 (3rd-2nd cen-
turies B.C.); 5) St Petersburg (Pagenstecher 1909, 95, No. 183c; Naumann 1983,
355, No. 527 (3rd-2nd centuries B.C.); 6) London (Pagenstecher 1909, 95, No.
183b; Jentel 1976, AP XI, 3c, 370 (4th-3rd centuries B.C.?); Naumann 1983, 355,
No. 528 (3rd-2nd centuries B.C.); 7) Lucera (Jentel 1976, AP XI, 3d, 371 (4th-3rd
centuries B.C.?); 8) Madrid (Jentel 1976, AP XI, 3f, 371 (4th-3rd centuries B.C.?);
9) Agrigent (Jentel 1976, AP XI, 3i, 372 (4th-3rd centuries B.C.?); 10) Basel (Jentel
1976, AP XI, 3j, 373 (4th-3rd centuries B.C.?).
tern (Spitsyn 1909, 42, fig. 55; Smirnov 1984, 75, fig. 29, 5). The
inner friezes of triangles are ornamented with vertical notches on
the silver pha,!,erae with horsemen from the Sarmatian burial of Krivaya
Luka necropolis in the Lower Volga basin (Dvornitchenko and
Fedorov-Davydov 1981, 102, figs. 2-3). The frame of the phalera
from the Aktanizovskii Treasure is treated in a similar way (Spitsyn
1909, 33, fig. 21 ).
Returning to the subject on the Kurchanskaya disc and related
compositions let me mention the following. The cult of Aphrodite
Pandemos is attested in the Athenian Acropolis at least since the
early 5th century B.C. (Pirenne-Delforge 1994, 29ff). The associa-
tion of the cults of Aphrodite and Hermes is proved for example by
the fourth day of the Aphrodisiai feast being devoted to them (Pirenne-
Delforge 1994, 31, n. 78). U. Knigge (1982, 158) maintains that the
images of winged Eros is nothing but a personification of Prosphoros,
the morning star which appears before Helios and is the only star
shining in the day time. She (Knigge 1982, 161-70) also considers
the goddess sitting on a swan to be Aphrodite Urania, appearing in
the daylight realm of Apollo, but the goddess sitting on a nanny-
goat accompanied by two baby-goats in the night sky to be Aphrodite
Pandemos. However, E.B. Harrison (1984, 383, n. 21) maintains that
such a strict division is impossible. The interpretation of the subject
on the mould from Larissa by U. Knigge (1985), namely the trans-
formation of Aphrodite Pandemos, represented by a small figure
below, in Aphrodite Urania, shown on the carriage is also a subject
of criticism (Fig. 8). It has been maintained that the small figure is
a worshipper or votary near the altar of Aphrodite (McPhee and
Pemberton 1990, 128-9, n. 35). The goddess shown on the Delian
medallions is attributed by E. Levy (Hackens and Levy 1965, 559)
as Aphrodite Epitragia.
The cults of Aphrodite Pandemos and Aphrodite Urania were
widespread in the Cimmerian Bosporus. S.R. Tokhtasev (1983; 1986)
has come to the following conclusion analysing the history of the
Bosporan shrine of Aphrodite Urania. According to Hecataeus (FGrHist
l F 21 l) the shrine stood on the shore of a small bay of the same
name forming part of the Corocondamitis (modern Taman gulf) on
its southern shore, near Hermonassa. This location is arrived at by
comparative analysis of the Hecataeus fragment and Strabo (11. 2. 10).
Unfortunately, archaeologists have so far not found the remains of
the shrine. Probably the oldest witness to its existence is Hecataeus.
the second quarter of the 4th century B.C.: the silver medallion from
Kerameikos, the mould from Larissa as well as Attic votive reliefs
of the late 4th century B.C. Examples of the medallions found in
Pelinna and on Delos prove that a reduced and slightly modified
version of the subject was reproduced in the 2nd century B.C. and
continued in use until the 3rd century A.D., to judge from the images
on a silver stamped diadem kept in Hamburg (Bracker 1974, 79-80,
No. 49, Abb. 37) and gold medallions from the eastern Crimea and
Bloomington Museum (Goroncharovskii 1993, 80-4, figs. 1-2; if.,
Cat. Bwomingwn 1995, No. 60.D). Separate elements of the Kurchanskaya
relief find parallels on the medallions and relief compositions of the
Calenian gutti, of the Hellenistic period. The use of the composi-
tion with the train of Kybele until the 2nd- I st centuries B.C. is
shown both by the medallion from Ai-Khanoum and a similar com-
position on the bronze matrix from the Metropolitan Museum allegedly
of Asia Minor workmanship. Given the use of numerous details which
are attested only on 4th century B.C. monuments, the Kurchanskaya
disc had a prototype of that period. In contrast to the medallion
from the Kerameikos, the Kurchanskaya medallion is a phakra which
was fixed to its backing by rivets along its edge; on its reverse it has
loops, similar to those on phakrae from late 2nd-early 1st century
B.C. Sarmatian burials. The date of the Kurchanskaya phalera is also
confirmed by the decoration of its outer frieze. How was it that a
4th century B.C. composition continued to be reproduced at least
two hundred years later? The answer lies with the bronze matrix
from the Metropolitan Museum of Art: with the help of such matri-
xes, as well as plaster casts of toreutic works of various epochs, col-
lected and preserved in the workshops of toreuts (see, e.g. Reinsberg
1980; Burkhalter 1984), it was possible to reproduce the subjects
chosen by clients. Such plaster casts spread through the north Pantie
area, as the find from the Late Scythian settlement Kara-Tobe in
the north-western Crimea, and dating to the middle of the 1st cen-
tury A.D. indicates (Vnukov, Kovalenko and Treister 1990).
The models of transformation. Analysing the 2nd century
B.C. phalerae from the south of Eastern Europe I have already sug-
gested that the manufacture of a series of ornaments by Sarmatian
toreuts after Syrian or Asian Minor prototypes took place during the
Sarmatian participation under Gatal in a political union with the
Pantie king Pharnakes I (Polyb. 25. 2) or during the Sarmatians'
sojourn in Asia Minor in the army of Mithridates Eupator (App.
7 In this connection note the use of the same subject· - namely the central part
of the composition: Aphrodite on a goat- -in the decoration of the 2nd-3rd cen-
tury A.D. open-worked buckles with side hooks of originally Sarmatian type, orig-
inating mainly from the territory of eastern Crimea and Chersonesus (Bilimovich
1962, 43-5, figs. 1-5; Treister 1996b, 120-1, fig. 37).
V.G. Lukonin (1967, figs. 38, 40) defined the pieces as Eastern
Hellenistic work of Graeco-Bactrian style (?); later on as manufac-
tured in Eastern Iran (?) in the 3rd-2nd centuries B.C., although
belonging
to the circle of Graeco-Bactrian art, which is testified by the Bactrian
(or more generally-Seleucid) shape of the helmet of one of the drivers,
the western pattern on the saddle and the figure of the Indian driver
(Ivanov et al. 1984, No. 24).
briefly analysied by Trever (I 940, 49), who stated that the pattern
reflected the shape of the windows for archers, known on the Parthian
sites of Assur; as a parallel she mentioned a steatite object from the
excavations of Parthian Nisa in the shape of a fortress wall with sim-
ilar pattern, dating to the 3rd-2nd centuries B.C. Citing parallels in
the architecture of Seleucia on the Tigris and the Kushan site of
Surkh Kotal, Pfrommer ( I 993, 71, n. 31) states that "the motif is
typical of architectural decoration in the former Seleucid sphere of
influence, but not of Seleucid architecture as well" and "it may have
been adopted from the decorative repertoire of the minor arts, in
which it is already to be encountered in Achaemenid times" (Pfrommer
1993, IO, 71, n. 32). Noteworthy is the opinion ofC. Hopkins (1972,
135-7), that the motif was brought to the West by the Parthians.
Indeed, the decoration of a crenellated tower (thorakion) on the
phalerae with three arrows and two rosettes each composed of four
triangles, finds parellels in Khoresmian, Graeco-Bactrian and Kushan
fortification. The arrowheads on the phalerae realistically show the
windows slits designed for archers (see reconstruction: Lapirov-Skoblo
1967, 28 l, fig. 112), although some, especially in the later period
have a purely decorative function. Such windows are characteristic
for the Khoresmian fortresses of Dzhanbas-kala, Koi-Krylghan-kala
and Kanga-kala of the 4th-2nd centuries B.C. (Tolstov I 948, 20,
fig. 28; Lapirov-Skoblo 1967, 279-82, figs. l l l, 113; Pugachenkova
1976, 140). This feature is known in the Hellenistic fortification wall
of Samarcand (Aphrasiab) in Sogdiana (Chichkina 1986, 74, figs.
289-90, 294-6, 301; Leriche 1986, 87) and P. Leriche (1986, 94)
has even mentioned this detail in connection with the elephant phalerae.
Since the late 3rd-early 2nd century B.C. such windows (meurtrieres)
were used in Graeco-Bactrian architecture (see, in general Leriche
1986, 94), e.g., in the fortification wall of ancient Balkh (Bactra I)
(Le Berre and Schlumberger 1964, 76, pis. XXXIV-IX; Pugachenkova
1976, 140; Pougatchenkova 1986, 59-60, fig. 279), which success-
fully withstood the well equipped army of Antiochus III in 207 /06
B.C. Arrow-shaped windows were widespread in the Late Bactrian
and Kushan periods, given the studies at Kukhnakala and Kushan
fortresses at Dilberzhin, Bactra-11, Surkh Kotal, Khalchayan, Toprak-
kala and on the reliefs representing fortifications from Dalversin-tepe,
Gandhara and Qunduz (Pugachenkova 1976, 141-7, figs. 80-l, 83-6;
1978, fig. 60; 1979, 47-51, figs. 51-2, 54-5; 1982, 143-4, fig. 148;
Fussman I 983, 20, Abb. 2, 31, Abb. 9; Pougatchenkova 1986, fig.
286). On the merlon from Surkh Kotal (Schlumberger 1970, fig. 52;
Pugachenkova 1979, 48, fig. 51) and on the relief from Qunduz
(Pugachenkova 1979, 49 51, fig. 55c) one can see patterns similar
to those composed of four triangles on the phalerae.
The helmet of one of the elephant drivers, defined as "Macedonian"
by Rostovtzeff, is designated as Boeotian in modern classification
(Waurick 1988, 159-63). Indeed, helmets of this type were often
represented on portraits of Graeco-Bactrian kings, from Eucratides I
(ca. 170-145 B.C.) to Hermaios and Apollophanes in the second half
of the 1st century B.C. (Bopearachchi 1991, pl. 68, J-Q). However,
the Syrian kings Alexander I Balas (152-144 B.C.), Antiochus VI
(145-142) and the usurper Tryphon (142-139 B.C.) are also shown
in helmets of the Boeotian type (Waurick 1988, 161-2, Abb. 31-3).
However, the helmets of this type vary, sometimes considerably, in
detail. Thus, for example, on the coins of Tryphon (Babelon 1890,
pl. XXI, 1-3) the helmet with a high cone on top differs greatly
from that on the elephant phalerae, while the helmet on the coins of
Alexander I Balas (Babelon 1890, pl. XVIII, 1-2) is rather similar
to most of those represented on the coins of the rulers of Bactria
and Indo-Bactria. In general, the helmet discussed looks close to the
type found on Bactrian coins-on some coins, for example, those of
Heliokles I, ca. 145-130 B.C. (Mitchiner 1975/76, I, 162 types 286-7;
164, type 290; Bopearachchi 1991, pl. 26, No. 23, A, B) and Menander
I Soter, ca. 155-130 B.C. (Mitchiner 1975/76, I, 124-5, types 217-8;
Bopearachchi 1991, pl. 30) the surface of the helmet is decorated
with numerous cones. The first appearance of such a helmet on a
20 stater gold coin of Eucratides (Mitchiner 1975/6, I, 91, type 175;
Bopearachchi 1991, pl. 16, No. 25; Cat. Vienna 1996, No. 125) as
well as on his silver and bronze coinage (Mitchiner 1975/76, I, 9lff,
types 176-9; 181-94; Smirnova 1992, 94-9, Nos. 60-165) is associ-
ated with the new legend basileos megalou eukratidou, belonging to the
third period of his coinage after his Indian campaign (Tarn 1951,
207-12; Narain 1957, 62; Mitchiner 1975/76, 67; Smirnova 1992,
89, 91 ). It is suggested that "Eucratides must have achieved his suc-
cess in the Paropamisadae before the year 162, the date of Timarchus'
revolt" (Narain 1957, 62). According to W. Tarn (1951, 212), "Eucra-
tides' time in India should ... fall between the years 165 and 160."
V.A. Smith (1964, 237) dated the Indian campaign of Eucratides to
ca. 160-156 B.C. The recent study by 0. Bopearachchi (1990, 55-63)
of coin issues of Menander and Eucratides allows him to place the
" E. Zejmal (Cat. Vienna 1996, No. 126) has recently came to similar conclusion,
dating the phal£rae to the second half of the 2nd century B.C. and suggesting the
following: "Daher ist es moglich, dal3 auf dem Elephanten Eukratides selbst oder
ein anderer grako-baktrischer Konig dargestellt ist". This suggestion has been already
expressed much earlier by R.D. Barnett ( 1968, 48).
At the same time, M. Pfrommer (1993, 12) stated that "an Afghan
origin is not entirely out of the question".
10 The spread of the motif of belted garland among the Sarmatians is proved by
a heavily stylised version of this pattern decorating the so-called gold flat crampon,
possibly a part of a buckle (?), or a handle of a box (?), originating from the same
burial at Severskaya, in which the phalera discussed has been found (Smirnov 1953,
30, pl. Vila; Anfimov 198 7, ill on p. I 90).
3-4; pis. 3-5 bottom; Rostovtzeff 1926, 245 = 1993, 43; 1942, 298;
Barnett 1968, 49, pl. XIII, I; Ivanov et al. 1984, No. 25, fig. 29
[Eastern Iran?, 3rd-2nd centuries B.C.]; Pfrommer 71, n. 25 with
numerous references; Boardman 1994, 106-7, fig. 4.39 [Bactrian];
Mordvintseva 1996a, 12 [Graeco-Bactrian, 2nd-early l st century
B.C.; Cat. Vienna 1996, No. 127: Bactrian: 2nd-1st centuries B.C.)
also with a broad strip along the edge decorated with running wave
pattern and partial gilding. The absence of belted garland is com-
pensated by the curved thin body of the griffin. The group corre-
sponds (except for the Getty pieces) to group 3, Mordvintseva's
classification ( 1996a, l l-2), attributed as works of Graeco-Bactrian
style, manufactured in several or even one centre. 11
The second group, represented by pieces Nos. 32-3 from the Getty
Museum and the phalerae from Leiden, Paris and Stara Zagara, is
characterised by a narrow slightly concave rim, rather primitive,
naive representations, frequent use of heraldic compositions, overall
gilding and decoration of the fronts with dotted pattern. It seems
that pieces in this group had a longer life, at least until the time of
Mithridates VI, with possible imitations in Sarmatia. The Treasure
I presents a close parallel to one more type of Sarmatian phalerae:
those pieces which, according to M. Pfrommer (1993, Nos. 34-5),
follow phialoi mesomphaloi of Greek type. As a close parallel, although
with a different pattern on the rim, let me mention the silver phalera
from the late 2nd-early I st century B.C. burial of Antipovka in
Voronezh region (Raev, Simonenko and Treister 1991, 4 72-4,
fig. 4) with the helmet of Etrusco-Italic type, once again pointing to
Asia Minor as the possible route of penetration into the Sarmatian
steppes. If, indeed the vessels were the prototypes of these phalerae the
find from the I st Prokhorovskii Kurgan of the two silver Achaemenid
dishes with Aramaic inscriptions, i.e., "the bowl of Athromithr's",
which had been remade as phalerae with the three-loops arrangement
perhaps already in the 3rd century B.C. 12 This find once again points
11 Mordvintseva's group 3 also includes pha/er(JJ! from Sidorovka with griffins, com-
parable with those on the plaques from Novouzensk, as well as the piece found on
the shore of the Ishim river.
12 Mordvintseva ( 1996c) is dating the bowls to the 4th century B.C. basing on
the date of the burial. Abka'i-Khavari ( 1988, l06-7, 125-6, Abb. 6, F3cl 5-6),
whose general publication on the Achaemenid metal bowls became unknown to
Mordvintseva, is dating them to the 3rd-2nd centuries not only because of the
Aramaic inscriptions but also basing on the peculiarities of the bowls' shapes.
Pfrommer (1993, 11) seems to associate the fashion for phalerae with
Bactria, suggesting that it "simultaneously reached Iran in the wake
of the Parthian invasion". However, this does not correspond well
with the realia, if we adopt his dating of the elephant phalerae as
significantly later than the pieces in the Getty Museum. The gen-
eral view on the phalerae of the two groups discussed points rather
to their manufacture in Parthia. What do we know about the crafts-
men manufacturing phalerae? Can we exclude the work of a toreut
originating from Graeco-Bactria in Iran? There could have also been
an exchange of plaster casts, representing various compositions,
between distant workshops, with the customer making a deliberate
choice of the subject he liked. Of key significance is the find of
Parthian coins in Kampyr-tepe, which may support the view that
north-western Bactria was included in the pre-Kushan period in the
eastern fringes territories of the Arsakid empire (Pugachenkova 1995,
34; if. finds of Graeco-Bactrian coins in the 2nd century B.C. hoards
from Persia: Rostovtzeff 1941, 1539, n. 149).
I think that the proposed data of ca. 150s B.C. of the elephant
phalerae indicates that the three-looped phalerae were most probably
of Graeco-Bactrian origin, but soon such phalerae were manufactured
in Parthia. I agree with Pfrommer's (1993, 11) conclusion, that "Greek
and Hellenised craftsmen provided the formal stylistic means while
the nomadic patrons determined the type of object and the icono-
graphic theme to be used". The secondary use of the Late Achaemenid
silver bowls as phalerae by the Sarmatians, probably already in the
3rd century B.C. indicates their need of such objects. Perhaps they
ordered or even looted some of them on the eve of the collapse of
the Graeco-Bactrian Kingdom, under the reign of Eucratides. Much
more significant is the role of the Parthian workshops, were the
majority of the phalerae discussed were manufactured in the middle
or third quarter of the 2nd century B.C., most probably in the reign
of Mithridates l's son Phraates II (138-128/27 B.C.) and his uncle
and successor Artabanus II (128/27-123 B.C.), both of whom died
in the struggle with the nomads (Debevoise 1938, 35-8; Colledge
1967, 30-2; Fischer 1970, 35, Anm. 58; 58, Anm. 121 with refer-
ences; Bivar 1983a, 38-9; 19836, 191-4; Bernard 1987, 767; Habicht
1989, 372). Noteworthy is that Saka mercenaries, were hired by
Phraates for the war against Antiochus VII of Syria (Justin XLII.
1-2, 1). They were probably an advance group of this horde of
Sacaraucae (Saca Rawaca) and Massagetae, whom Phraates attempted
to quiet for a time by a subsidy (Debevoise 1938, 35-6). When
Phraates refused to pay them they began to ravage the Parthian ter-
ritory as faw west as Mesopotamia (Joan. Antioch. fr. 66, 2 [FHG,
IV, 561 ]). Artabanus II inherited the problem of the Sacae, to whom
he may have paid tribute (Joan. Antioch. fr. 66 [FHG, IV, 561]).
He died after he recieved a wound in an offensive movement some-
where in the region of Bactria against the Tochari (Debevoise 1938,
37-8). It may be that the phalerae discussed were received as part of
the tribute.
Soon we find the bearers of these phalerae in the steppes of the
North Pantie area and even in the Crimea, when the Roxalani met
the troops of Diophantes. Perhaps already as early as 110 B.C. two
of the phalerae taken as trophies from the defeated Sarmatians were
dedicated to the sanctuary of Artemis Tauropolos at Comana Pontica.
With the westward penetration of the Sarmatians, some of the phalerae,
manufactured in Parthia, may have reached the north-western and
western Pantie area. There is no doubt that phalerae of Parthian man-
ufacture were imitated by the Sarmatians who settled in the Kuban
basin; these imitations were probably executed by Sarmatian crafts-
men. While some of these craftsmen used compositions from Oriental
prototypes (if. the phalerae from Voronezhskaya [Anfimov 1986, 208;
Cat. To~o I 991, No. 65] and Novouzensk: see above), others used
already popular Classical subjects which had parallels in their own
mythological tradition, combined with techniques and ornamental
patterns borrowed from Parthian prototypes. The events of the late
2nd-early 1st century B.C. allowed some Sarmatian tribes to par-
ticipate in the military campaigns of Mithridates VI in Asia Minor.
This period saw the production of a large series of phalerae, deco-
rated mainly with floral patterns and with characteritic framing. Some
of them were manufactured by Sarmatian craftsmen; others may also
have been made in the workshops of the Bosporan cities, and a
Sarmatian client might select a subject borrowed from an old votive
object, stored in a local sanctuary for several centuries, to be framed
with a pattern, familiar to them. Such a reconstruction of a devel-
opment of three-looped Hellenistic phalerae seems to correlate well
with the ethno-political history of the Sarmatian tribes in the 2nd-
I st centuries B.C., reconstructed on the base of the data of narrative
and archaeological sources (see, e.g., Skripkin I 990, 199-203; Shchukin
I 994, 145-6).
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