PHYSIOLOGICAL DETERMINANTS
TIME TRIAL
ØYVIND STØREN,1 KÅRE ULEVÅG,1,2 MORTEN H. LARSEN,1 EVA M. STØA,1
1
Department of Sport and Outdoor Life Studies, Telemark University College, Bø, Telemark, Norway; 2Tvedestrand Sport
Medical Centre, Tvedestrand, Norway; 3Department of Circulation and Medical Imaging, Faculty of Medicine, Norwegian
University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway; and 4Hokksund Medical Rehabilitation Centre, Hokksund, Norway
ABSTRACT
Støren, Ø, Ulevåg, K, Larsen, MH, Støa, EM, and Helgerud, J.
Physiological determinants of the cycling time trial. J Strength
Cond Res 27(9): 2366–2373, 2013—The purpose of this
study was to examine the physiological determinants of endur-
ance cycling time trial (TT) performance in a heterogeneous
group of competitive male road cyclists. About 15 male cyclists
who had all competed in cycling the preceding season were
tested for the anthropometric variables height, body weight, leg
length, ankle circumference, and body fat percentage. They
were also tested for maximal oxygen consumption (V_ O2max),
lactate threshold (LT), metabolic cost of cycling (CC), peak
power output and average power output during a 30-second
Wingate test, 1 repetition maximum and peak power in half
squats, and a TT test on an ergometer. Heart rate and cadence
(rounds per minute, RPM) were continuously measured during
all cycle tests. Pearson Bivariate correlation tests and single
linear regression tests were performed to obtain correlation
coefficients (r), effect size (F), standard error of estimate
(SEE), and 95% confidence interval. The single variable that
correlated best with TT performance was power output at LT (r
= 0.86, p , 0.01). Standard error of estimate was 7.5%. Lac-
tate threshold expressed in %V_ O2max did not correlate signif-
icantly with TT performance. An equation representing both
aerobic and anaerobic endurance capacity TT(w) = 0.95
([V_ O2max/CC] TT%V_ O2max) + 0.05 (Wingate average) corre-
lated strongly with TT laboratory performance (r = 0.93, p ,
0.01, SEE = 5.7%). None of the strength, power, or anthropo-
metric variables correlated significantly with TT laboratory per-
formance.
KEY WORDS aerobic endurance, maximal oxygen consumption,
lactate threshold, cycling economy
Address correspondence to Øyvind Støren, oyvind.storen@hit.no.
27(9)/2366–2373
Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research
Ó 2013 National Strength and Conditioning Association
the TM
2366 Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research
Copyright © National Strength and Conditioning Association Unauthorized reproduction of this article is prohibited.
OF THE CYCLING
AND JAN HELGERUD1,3,4
INTRODUCTION
R
oad cycling time trial (TT) races normally last
from approximately 10 minutes in prologues to
approximately 60 minutes in a 50 km race among
elite cyclists and are thus typically aerobic endur-
ance events. Based on the duration of these races, TTs are
80–99% dependent on aerobic metabolism (3). di Prampero
(11) lists the sum of anaerobic and aerobic endurance
capacity, the latter consisting of V_ O2max, the fractional
utilization of V_ O2max, and work economy, as the major
factors determining time performance in endurance sports.
Aerobic and anaerobic endurance capacities as well as work
economy are influenced directly or indirectly by several fac-
tors, among them are muscular strength and anthropometry,
as discussed in Joyner and Coyle (21).
Different studies on endurance sports have reported
physical and physiological characteristics of untrained,
recreational, national, and international athletes, and the
results differ as to what are the main determining factors for
endurance race performance. In elite cross-country skiing,
Ingjer (20) has found a very strong relationship between
V_ O2max and race performance level. A training intervention
case study on an elite cyclist has shown the same level of
improvement in TT laboratory performance as the improve-
ment in V_ O2max (28). On the other hand, Lucia et al. (23)
report that a good cycling economy (CC) seems to compen-
sate for relatively low V_ O2max values among world-class
professional road cyclists. According to Lucia et al. (24),
CC and lactate threshold (LT) are more important determi-
nants of endurance cycling performance than V_ O2max.
Grant et al. (12) found in a rather homogenous performance
group of middle and long distance runners that neither
V_ O2max nor running economy alone correlated strongly
with 3 km running velocity. Running velocity at LT, how-
ever, correlated strongly with 3 km velocity in their study.
This was not surprising because LT velocity has been shown
to be influenced by both V_ O2max and economy (15), and in
a study on soccer players (14), improvements in LT velocity
were almost identical with the sum of improvements in
V_ O2max and running economy. In contrast to Grant et al.
(12), Bentley et al. (7) did not find a significant correlation
between power output at LT and TT performance among

subelite cyclists. As power output at LT is influenced by both
V_ O2max and economy, it has been shown to relate closely to
maximal aerobic power (MAP) calculated as V_ O2max
divided by CC (31). Balmer et al. (4) have also shown
MAP to be a strong predictor of average power output dur-
ing a 16-km field TT in cycling. However, MAP in Balmer
et al. (4) was obtained differently from that in Sunde et al.
(31) and defined as the highest average power recorded
during any 60 seconds of an incremental test.
When LT is expressed as a percentage of V_ O2max, elite
athletes are expected to have a higher LT than moderately
trained or untrained individuals (3,21,27). Green et al. (13)
have reported that physically active noncyclists have an LT,
defined as onset blood lactate accumulation, and set to con-
centration of blood lactate ([La2]b) 4 mmol$L21, of 78%
V_ O2max. Lucia et al. (24) have reported that elite cyclists
have an LT (defined similarly as in Green et al. (13)) of
87% V_ O2max. On the other hand, Bangsbo (5), Helgerud
et al. (15,16), Støren et al. (28,30), and Sunde et al. (31)
have reported the adaptability of LT in %V_ O2max to endur-
ance training to be minor. Unfortunately, the vast majority
of studies on cycling have not reported LT as a percentage
of V_ O2max but rather power output at LT (LTW). While LT
velocity or power output at LT has been reported to be
influenced by both V_ O2max and economy (15), it is LT in
%V_ O2max that shows the capacity for exercising close to
V_ O2max over time (27). Fractional utilization of V_ O2max in
long distance races seems to be closely related to LT expressed
as a percentage of V_ O2max (10,27) and is reported to be
increasingly important the longer the duration of the races
(10). However, Støa et al. (27) have shown fractional utiliza-
tion of V_ O2max to be negligible for time performance when
the duration of competition is less than 20 minutes.
There has been a current understanding of a central
supply limitation represented by maximal cardiac output to
V_ O2max during bicycling (6). The link between adaptations
to maximal cardiac output and V_ O2max to endurance train-
ing was shown in Helgerud et al. (15). The decisive factors to
CC have been more unclear. Lucia et al. (24) pointed to the
many kilometers that world class cyclists cover per year as
a reason for their superior CC compared with less successful
cyclists. Several studies have shown improvements in econ-
omy after maximal strength training in running (30), cross
country skiing (26), soccer (18) and cycling (31). In the stud-
ies on running and cycling (30,31), these improvements in
economy were directly related to approximately 20%
improvement in performance. Despite this, no significant
relationships between maximal strength per se and economy
have been shown. This does not necessarily mean that max-
imal strength is without any importance to endurance
performance (21). Aagaard et al. (1) found strength training
(5–12 repetition maximum [RMs]) that improved maximal
voluntary muscle strength to also improve 45-minute TT
performance among amateur elite cyclists. In this study,
Aagaard et al. (1) found no improvement in CC. It may thus
Copyright © National Strength and Conditioning Association Unauthorized reproduction of this article is prohibited.
the TM
Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research | www.nsca.com
be speculated whether improvements in maximal strength
per se also influence TT.
Several studies have reported anthropometric factors that
could have a positive effect on running economy and running
performance (2,8,22). These factors include height, body
weight, percent body fat, leg length, and ankle circumference.
However, little has been reported regarding anthropometric
factors that could have a positive effect on cycling perfor-
mance. According to Mujika and Padilla (25), professional
road cyclists represent variable anthropometric values, and it
could thus be of interest to investigate if anthropometrics
would exert an influence on laboratory TT performance.
Different studies have reported physical and physiological
characteristics of untrained, recreational, national, and inter-
national cyclists. However, to our knowledge only review
articles have addressed the relationship between a large set
of physiological characteristics and a controlled laboratory
TT performance test among a heterogeneous group of
competitive cyclists. To gain further knowledge about
determining physiological factors for cycling, TT perfor-
mance is important to optimize training regimens. The aim
of this study was to examine potential relationships between
different anthropometrical and physiological variables and
TT laboratory performance. To test such a large set of
physiological characteristics and compare the results with
a controlled laboratory TT performance test would be the
novelty of this present study. Our hypothesis was that an
equation representing both aerobic and anaerobic endurance
capacity,


h i 
TT w ¼ 0:95 V_ o2 max=CC TT%V_ o2 max


þ 0:05 Wingate average ;
based on the model for endurance time performance in di
Prampero (11), would explain most of the interindividual
differences in TT laboratory performance. The second
hypothesis was that LTW would correlate strongly with
TT laboratory performance, showing the importance of
V_ O2max and CC.
METHODS
Experimental Approach to the Problem
It is important to gain further knowledge about determining
physical and physiological factors for cycling TT perfor-
mance to optimize training regimens. The aim of this study
was thus to examine potential relationships between a large
set of physiological characteristics, anthropometric charac-
teristics, and a controlled laboratory TT performance test
among a heterogeneous group of competitive cyclists.
To do this, 15 male cyclists who had all competed in cycling
the preceding season were tested for the anthropometric
variables height, body weight, leg length, ankle circumference,
and body fat percentage. They were also tested for V _ O2max,
LT, metabolic cost of cycling (CC), peak power output, and
VOLUME 27 | NUMBER 9 | SEPTEMBER 2013 | 2367
 Physiological Variables and Time Trial Cycling

average power output during a 30-second Wingate test, 1RM accordance with Lucia et al. (24), who measured at the point of
and peak power in half squats, and TTon a test ergometer in the largest circumference, but it is the same method as used in
laboratory. Heart rate (HR) and cadence (rounds per minute, Støren et al. (30). Body height, leg length, and ankle circumfer-
RPM) were continuously measured during all cycle tests. ence were measured with a Seca 201 (Seca). Body fat was
measured with a skin caliper (Lange skin caliper; Beta Tech-
Subjects
nology, Santa Cruz, CA, USA) at the chest, the suprailiac, the
Fifteen male road cyclists from the South-East of Norway
abdomen, the thigh, and the triceps. Test-retest measurements
participated in the present study. All of them had competed
of our laboratory technician who performed these skin caliper
in cycling in the present season, and 5 of them had also
tests have shown a coefficient of variance of ,2% regarding
competed in triathlon. Although they were all competitive
skinfolds at each site but ,1.5% for fat percentage.
cyclists, their performance level ranged from top national to
medium regional. The heterogeneity level of performance Physiological Variables
among the cyclists was chosen to ensure the possibility The subjects were tested on 2 different days each, but each
to correlate physiological variables to TT laboratory perfor- test was only performed once per cyclist. Before each test
mance. Descriptive data are
presented in Table 1.
All cyclists were in their pre-
season training, ranging from TABLE 1. Characteristics of cyclists (n = 15).
5 to 20 hours per week, when
Coefficient of
this study was conducted. None
Mean 6 SD variance (%)
of the cyclist had a sudden
increase or decrease in training Age and anthropometrics
volume or intensity (for the last Age (y) 31.7 6 9.8 31.1
month) and suffered from ill- Height (cm) 183.2 6 6.8 3.7
BM (kg) 80.7 6 8.5 10.6
ness (for the last month) or Fat (%) 13.6 6 4.2 30.6
injury (for the last 2 months) Leg length (cm) 88.3 6 5.2 5.8
coming in to the study. The Ankle circ. (cm) 22.5 6 1.0 4.5
cyclists were informed of the Time trial performance
experimental risks and signed Time (s) 1,935.3 6 276.0 14.3
Power (W) 299.3 6 38.3 12.8
an informed consent document %V_ O2max 84.4 6 5.1 6.1
before the investigation. Appro- RER 0.96 6 0.03 3.2
priate informed consent has [La2]b 10.0 6 2.6 25.6
thus been gained. The investi- Cad. (RPM) 96.6 6 9.0 9.3
gation was approved by the Strength and power
Wingate peak (W) 783.7 6 143.6 18.3
Institutional Review Board. It Wingate average (W) 635.3 6 72.7 11.4
was also approved by the Half squat 1RM (kg) 172.7 6 35.0 20.3
regional ethical committee of Half squat power (W) 1,128.0 6 214.4 19.0
southern Norway. Physiological
V_ O2max
Anthropometrics L$min21 4.9 6 0.5 10.4
Before the physiological tests mL$kg21$min21 60.9 6 6.3 10.3
were performed, all subjects mL$kg20.67$min21 259.5 6 24.6 9.5
LT
were measured for body height %V_ O2max 76.9 6 4.0 5.2
and body mass (BM). Body W 277.5 6 35.8 12.9
mass was measured by a digital CC
weight (Tefal Compliss, mL$kg21$W21 0.175 6 0.02 9.7
Lyon, France) and controlled mL$kg20.67$W21 0.744 6 0.06 8.6
by an analog weight (Seca, *Values are mean 6 SD and coefficient of variance. BM = body mass; fat = percent body
Hamburg, Germany). Leg fat measured with caliper; ankle circ. = ankle circumference measured at narrowest point;
length was measured as the power = average power during time trial; V_ O2max = maximal oxygen uptake; %V_ O2max =
fractional utilization of maximal oxygen uptake during time trial; RER = respiratory exchange
mean of both legs and mea- ratio. [La2]b = concentration of blood lactates immediately after time trial; cad. (RPM) =
sured inside leg from the cadence in rounds per minute; Wingate test = 30-second all-out cycle test; peak = peak
groin to the ground. Calf power during Wingate test; average = average power during Wingate test; 1RM = 1 repetition
maximum in half squat; half squat power = peak power (Newton meter per second) during half
circumference was measured at squat; LT = lactate threshold; CC = oxygen cost of cycling.
the narrowest point just above
the ankles. This method is not in
the TM

2368 Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research

Copyright © National Strength and Conditioning Association Unauthorized reproduction of this article is prohibited.

session, the cyclists prepared as for a cycle race. The
participants were instructed to rest or only train easy the
last 24 hours before the tests. All tests were carried out
between 10 AM and 3 PM to ensure that they had their nor-
mal amount of sleep (ranging between 6 and 9 hours per
night) and time to eat their normal race day diet. Hydration
levels were only self-checked by the cyclists (i.e., color of
urine). No alcohol was allowed the last 24 hours, no tobacco
the last 12 hours, and the last meal was finished a maximum
of 4 and a minimum of 2 hours before testing. From 2 hours
before the first test and throughout the test session, the only
type of fluid intake allowed was water. The first day of test-
ing consisted of continuous measurements of HR (every 5
seconds), oxygen consumption (V_ O2) (every 20 seconds),
and cadence (RPM) during 5-minute work periods at several
different set workloads on the racing ergometer Lode Excal-
ibur Sport (Lode; Groningen, The Netherlands). The margin
of error in wattage accuracy for Lode Excalibur Sport test
ergometer bike is 62% between 100 and 1,500 W, in accor-
dance with manufacturer recommendations. After each work
period, blood lactate concentration [La2]b was measured by
a finger capillary blood sample. V _ O2 was measured using the
metabolic test system, Sensor Medics Vmax Spectra (Sensor
Medics 229; Yourba Linda, CA, USA) with a mixing chamber.
The metabolic test system was calibrated before each test. The
gas analyzers were calibrated against certified calibration gas-
ses (26% O2 and 16% O2/4% CO2) and ambient air, and the
flow sensor was calibrated with a 3-L calibration syringe
(Hans Rudolph, Kansas City, MO, USA). Measurements of
V_ O2 with the Sensor Medics Vmax Spectra are accurate within
a range of 63%, in accordance with manufacturer recommen-
dations. However, test-to-test variations with the Vmax Spec-
tra in our laboratory are shown to be less than 61%, with
a SEM of 0.1–0.2 in different tests, as reported in Helgerud
et al. (17). Lactate measurements were performed using an
Arcray Lactate Pro LT-1710 analyzer (Arcray Inc., Kyoto,
Japan). The lactate analyzer was calibrated before each new
test person, with certified calibration strips (Arcray Inc., Kyoto,
Japan). The Lactate Pro lactate analyzer is reported to operate
within a 3% coefficient of variance, in accordance with man-
ufacturer recommendations. Heart rate was measured using
Polar s610 heart rate monitors (Polar Electro, Kempele,
Finland). The heart rate monitors have an error margin of
,1% compared with electrocardiogram, in accordance with
manufacturer recommendations. The subjects started at
a brake power of 100, 150, or 175 W (assumed to represent
40–50% of their V_ O2max). Every 5 minutes, the brake
power was increased by 10–30 W, until the protocol ter-
minated at just above the subjects’ LT. Individual starting
points and increments in Watts were chosen to target as
much as possible the same relative intensities during each
step for each subject. When controlling for the V_ O2max test
later performed, all subjects performed the first step at 40–
50% of their V_ O2max, the next step at 55–60% of their
V_ O2max, the third step at 60–70% of their V_ O2max, and
Copyright © National Strength and Conditioning Association Unauthorized reproduction of this article is prohibited.
the TM
Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research | www.nsca.com
the fourth step at 70–80% of their V_ O2max. For the subjects
who had not reached LT at this point, a fifth step was added
at 80–85% of their V_ O2max. From the continuous measure-
ments, HR, V_ O2, and RPM were assessed during the last 60
seconds of each work period. Lactate threshold was
defined as the warm-up [La2]b value (i.e., measured after
the lowest brake power) + 2.3 mmol$L21. This is in accor-
dance with the method of Helgerud et al. (16). This method
has been used in several studies such as Helgerud et al. (15),
Støren et al. (30), and Sunde et al. (31). The advantage of
using such a model based on individual warm-up values
compared with a fixed 4 mmol$L21 is that it is less vulnerable
to day-to-day variations in subjects [La2]b. Five minutes after
the last 5-minute work period, a V_ O2max test was performed,
using an incremental protocol. The subjects started at a brake
power representing their individual LT intensity level. Every 30
or 60 seconds, the power was increased by 10–25 W. This
protocol was used to ensure a suitable duration of this type
of test, between 3 and 8 minutes as proposed by Åstrand
and Rodahl (3) and used in Sunde et al. (31). The test
terminated at voluntary fatigue by the subjects. A possible
flattening of the V_ O2 curve (,1 ml$kg21$min21 increase in
V_ O2 during the last 3 subsequent recordings), HR $ 95%
HRmax, respiratory exchange ratio (R) $ 1.05, and [La2]b
$ 8.0 mmol$L21 were used as criteria to evaluate if
V_ O2max was obtained.
Maximal aerobic power was defined as the power output
point where the horizontal line representing V_ O2max meets
the extrapolated linear regression representing the submax-
imal V_ O2 measured in the LT assessment. The linearity from
this regression in previous studies (17,29–31) has been very
good (r2 . 0.991, p , 0.0001). Based on this, MAP may also
be defined as V_ O2max/CC.
Cost of cycling (CC) was calculated at the power output
representing 70% V_ O2max, defined as the power output
point where the horizontal line representing 70% V_ O2max
meets the extrapolated linear regression representing the
submaximal V_ O2 measured in the LT assessment. CC was
thus calculated as 70% V_ O2max/power output at 70%
V_ O2max.
Time Trial Laboratory Performance
The second day of testing started with a 30-minute
individual warm-up, followed by continuous measurements
of time, HR, RPM, and V_ O2 during a 15-km laboratory TT
on the Lode Excalibur Sport racing ergometer. The results
obtained during this test (with the exception of time) are
presented as means from the full test period. Immediately
after the termination of the test, [La2]b was measured.
Because of the circumference of the flywheel on the test
bike, 15 km approximates 23 km outdoor cycling on a level
road. The cyclists were instructed to perform the test as an
actual TT competition. They could continuously watch
a monitor showing time and distance covered (as would
have been available during an actual TT field competition).
VOLUME 27 | NUMBER 9 | SEPTEMBER 2013 | 2369
 Physiological Variables and Time Trial Cycling

This was the only information provided to the cyclist during and overestimating of cost of work among heavier sub-
the laboratory TT. jects, and vice versa among lighter subjects (19).
Strength and Power Statistical Analyses
Peak power output in cycling and average power output Data were tested by use of QQ-plots and found to represent
during an all-out 30-second Wingate test was tested 1 hour a normal distribution. All table values were expressed either
after the V_ O2max test on the first day of testing. The tests descriptively as mean 6 SD or as the correlation factor r. To
were carried out on a Monark Wingate test cycle 849E investigate the potential relationships between the anthro-
(Monark Exercise AB, Vansbro, Sweden), modified with rac- pometric and physiological variables and TT laboratory
ing pedals, racing seat, and rac-
ing handlebars. The Wingate
test cycle had a preset flywheel
resistance (weight loading of TABLE 2. Correlations to time used (seconds) in time trial (TT) cycling (n = 15).*
7.5% of the cyclist’s BM). The
SEE Effect
software program (Monark
r (%)* 95% CI size (F)
anaerobic test software; Mon-
ark Exercise AB) calculates Performance
power output as the product TT power (W) 1.0† 1.5 27.6 to 26.8 1,309.1
of brake resistance and TT% V_ O2max 20.51 12.7 255.1 to 20.4 4.5
TT cad. (RPM) 20.36 13.8 228.3 to 6.0 2.0
cadence. The acceleration Age (y) 20.22 14.4 222.4 to 10.4 0.6
phase of the Wingate test, Anthropometrics
regarding RPM, was carried BM (kg) 20.09 14.7 222.1 to 16.3 0.1
out with no flywheel resistance, Height (cm) 0.08 14.8 221.1 to 27.4 0.1
and the 30-second test started Leg length (cm) 0.24 14.4 218.2 to 44.0 0.8
Ankle 0.14 14.2 275.8 to 236.1 1.2
automatically as the resistance
circumference (cm)
was added. One hour after the Body fat (%) 0.11 14.7 243.4 to 46.3 0.1
TT laboratory test on the sec- Physiological
ond day of testing, the subjects V_ O2max (L$min21) 20.78† 9.3 2600.3 to 2206.7 19.6
V_ O2max 20.69† 10.7 249.4 to 210.9 11.5
performed a 1RM test in half
(ml$kg21$min21)
squat, using a Smith machine. V_ O2max 20.81† 8.7 213.0 to 25.1 24.6
The measurements of force, (ml$kg20.67$min21)
lifting time, distance of work, CC (ml$kg21$W21) 0.24 14.4 25,498.3 to 13,307.3 0.8
and thus power were per- CC (ml$kg20.67$W21) 0.21 14.5 21,591.4 to 3,430.1 0.6
formed using the Muscle Lab MAP (V_ O2max/CC) 20.77† 9.5 27.6 to 22.5 18.8
(V_ O2max/CC) LT% 20.80† 8.9 210.1 to 23.8 22.8
system (Ergo test Technology,
V_ O2max
Langesund, Norway). From (V_ O2max/CC) 20.92† 5.8 28.2 to 24.9 70.2
pilot testing in Støren et al. TT%V_ O2max
(30), regarding MAP running 0.95([V_ O2max/CC] 20.93† 5.7 28.2 to 24.9 73.2
TT%V _ O2max)) +
to exhaustion, followed by
0.05(Wingate
maximal strength and power
average)
testing in half squat, there LT (%V_ O2max) 20.02 14.8 242.9 to 40.5 0.0
was no observed deteriora- LT (W) 20.86† 7.5 29.0 to 24.3 37.2
tion in 1RM and peak power Strength and power
30 minutes after the MAP test Wingate peak (W) 20.16 14.6 21.4 to 0.8 0.3
Wingate average (W) 20.45 13.2 23.7 to 0.3 3.2
compared with the same Half squat 1RM (kg) 0.32 14.0 21.9 to 7.0 1.5
strength and power test with- Half squat power (W) 0.11 14.7 20.6 to 0.9 0.2
out the preceding MAP test.
*r = correlation coefficient; SEE = standard error of estimate in percentage; 95% CI, in
Allometric Scaling seconds for the increase in each actual unit of each variable; F = effect size factor; TT = time
V_ O2 values are expressed trial on ergometer test cycle; power = Newton meter per second; V_ O2max = maximal oxygen
uptake; %V_ O2max = fractional utilization of V_ O2max; cad = cadence; RPM = rounds
in ml$kg20.67$min21, in per minute; BM = body mass; body fat = per cent body fat measured with skin caliper;
ml$kg21$min21, and in CC = oxygen cost of cycling at 70% V_ O2max; MAP = maximal aerobic power; LT = lactate
L$min21, as proposed by threshold; Wingate peak = peak power during 30-second all-out cycle test; Wingate average =
average power during 30-second all-out cycle test; 1RM = 1 repetition maximum.
Åstrand and Rodahl (3). †p , 0.01 significant correlation.
Lack of scaling has shown
underestimating of V_ O2max
the TM

2370 Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research

Copyright © National Strength and Conditioning Association Unauthorized reproduction of this article is prohibited.

performance, regression and correlation analyses were per-
formed. For the correlation and regression tests, standard
error of estimate (SEE); 95% confidence interval (CI) in
seconds (TT results), for the increase in each tested variable
unit; and the effect size factor (F) were reported. Pearson
bivariate 2-tailed correlation test was used to determine cor-
relations between variables. Two-tailed statistics were cho-
sen because not all variables tested correlated either
positively or negatively with TT. Single regression analyses
were used to determine SEE, CI, and F. Multiple regressions
were not used because of the low number of participants
(n = 15). Because results in several of the selected variables
are affected by results in other variables, the correlation
results could not be added up to explain or predict TT
laboratory results. The addition of r values from the selected
variables would explain well above 100% of TT laboratory
performance. Instead, single variables such as V_ O2max and
CC were coupled before statistical analyses were performed,
as previously done in Støren et al. (29). Although multiple
regressions were not used to explain the dependent variables
of interest, they were performed to obtain the variation infla-
tion factor. This was done to avoid the coupling of variables
that would be heavily dependent on each other (i.e., collin-
earity). Statistical analyses were performed using the soft-
ware program SPSS, version 15.0 (Statistical Package for
Social Science, Chicago, IL, USA). A p value ,0.05 was
accepted as statistically significant for the correlation tests.
Strong correlations were determined by r2 . 0.5, SEE ,
10%, F . 15, and p , 0.05. Weak correlations were deter-
mined by r2 , 0.5, SEE . 10% and F , 15, and p , 0.05.
RESULTS
The single variable that correlated best with TT laboratory
performance was power output at LT (r = 0.87, p , 0.01).
Standard error of estimate was 7.5%. Lactate threshold
(%V_ O2max) did not correlate significantly with TT labora-
tory performance. V_ O2max expressed as ml$kg20.67$min21
correlated strongly with TT laboratory performance (r =
0.81, p , 0.01, SEE = 8.7%). Also MAP correlated strongly
with TT performance (r = 0.77, p , 0.01, SEE = 9.5%).
Neither CC, cadence, any of the anthropometric variables, nor
any of the strength and power variables correlated significantly
with TT performance. Correlations are presented in Table 2.
We suggest that the combination of aerobic and anaerobic
endurance capacity can be calculated by the equation


h i 
TT w ¼ 0:95 V_ o2 max=CC TT%V_ o2 max


þ 0:05 Wingate average ; (1)
TT (w) is the average wattage during laboratory TT, CC is
the cost of cycling, TT%V_ O2max is the fractional utilization
of V_ O2max, Wingate average is the average wattage pro-
duced during a 30-second all-out Wingate test.
Copyright © National Strength and Conditioning Association Unauthorized reproduction of this article is prohibited.
the TM
Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research | www.nsca.com
Figure 1. Relationship between time trial (TT) laboratory performance
and results from the equation representing both aerobic and anaerobic
endurance capacity (n = 15). Values are TT laboratory performance in
seconds, and equation 1 in Watts. Equation 1: TT (w) = 0.95([V_ O2max/
CC] TT%V_ O2max) + 0.05 (Wingate average). TT (w) = average wattage
during laboratory TT; CC = cost of cycling; TT% V_ O2max = fractional
utilization of V_ O2max; Wingate average = average wattage produced
during a 30-second all-out Wingate test; TT = laboratory cycling time
trial; V_ O2max = maximal oxygen uptake; S = seconds; W = watts.
The formula is based on the approximately 95% aerobic
and 5% anaerobic metabolism during 30 minutes of maximal
exercise (3) and on the factors proposed by di Prampero (11)
to determine time performance in endurance sports. di
Prampero (11) also lists the distance covered as a factor
determining time performance, but for a given distance, this
is a constant and can be omitted from the formula.
The result from this equation correlated best with TT
performance overall (r = 0.93, p , 0.01, SEE = 5.7, 95% CI
from 28.2 to 24.9 seconds). However, the solely aerobic
version of this formula, namely (V_ O2max/CC) TT%V_ O2max,
gave an almost identical result(r = 0.92, p , 0.01, SEE =
5.8%, 95%, CI from 28.2 to 24.9 seconds). The relationship
between equation 1 and TT laboratory performance is pre-
sented in Figure 1.
DISCUSSION
The primary findings in the present study were that the
formula representing both aerobic and anaerobic endurance
capacity (equation 1) displayed a strong correlation with TT
laboratory performance (r = 0.93, p , 0.01, 95% CI from
28.2 to 24.9 seconds), with the lowest SEE (5.7%), and
the largest effect size (F = 73.2) of the different variables.
That the solely aerobic version of this formula, namely
(V_ O2max/CC) TT%V_ O2max, gave almost identical results
(r = 0.92, p , 0.01, SEE = 5.8, 95% CI from 28.2 to 24.9
seconds) indicates that anaerobic endurance capacity plays
a minor role for TT laboratory performance in this setting.
The single variable correlating best with TT laboratory per-
formance was LTw (r = 0.87, p , 0.01).
VOLUME 27 | NUMBER 9 | SEPTEMBER 2013 | 2371
 Physiological Variables and Time Trial Cycling
V_ O2max expressed as ml$kg20.67$min21 also correlated
strongly with TT laboratory performance (r = 0.81, p ,
0.01). This expression of V_ O2max had a 2.0% and a 2.6%
lesser SEE than the expression in L$min21 and
ml$kg21$min21, respectively. Although with larger SEE
than V_ O2max and LTW, MAP also correlated strongly with
TT laboratory performance (r = 0.77, p , 0.01). This corre-
lation is in accordance with results from Balmer et al. (4)
who found MAP to be a strong predictor of average power
output during a 16-km field TT. However, MAP was calcu-
lated differently in Balmer et al. (4) than in the present study.
None of the anthropometric variables significantly corre-
lated with TT performance, which is in accordance with
Mujika and Padilla (25) who found male professional road
cyclists to be represented with variable anthropometric
dimensions. Maximal strength measured as 1RM half squat
did not correlate significantly with TT laboratory perfor-
mance, V_ O2max, or CC, which is in line with Sunde et al.
(31), who found no significant correlation between 1RM half
squat and V_ O2max, CC, or time to exhaustion at MAP.
The expression of V_ O2max that correlated best with
TT performance was expressed as ml$kg20.67$min21. This
is in-line with the general proposal for cycling by Åstrand
and Rodahl (3). Absolute V_ O2max (L$min21) should theo-
retically give a better fit, as the TT was performed on a test
ergometer (i.e., level cycling). A possible reason for the better
correlation between TT and V_ O2max expressed as
ml$kg20.67$min21 could be when the fittest cyclists also
had the leanest bodies and thus on average a lower BM.
However, there were no significant correlations between
TT laboratory performance and percent body fat or between
TT laboratory performance and BM. Therefore, we could
not suggest a good explanation for the better correlation
with V_ O2max expressed as ml$kg20.67$min21.
The finding that LTw correlated strongly with TT perfor-
mance was not surprising because LTw is mainly determined
by V_ O2max divided by CC (15). In the present study, this can
also be shown when dividing V_ O2max by CC (which gives
MAP) and then correct for the LT %V_ O2max. As an example,
with a V_ O2max of 60 ml$kg21$min21 and a CC of 0.150
ml$kg21$min21$W21, MAP equals 400 W. With an LT in
%V_ O2max of 75%, calculated LTW will be 400 W 3 0.75 =
300 W. By plotting calculated LTW against measured LTW,
we found that the values were almost identical, with an r =
0.95 (p , 0.0001). These results are in contrast to the results
from Bentley et al. (7) who did not find a significant corre-
lation between LTw and TT performance among subelite
cyclists. The coefficient of variance in wattage from the
90 minutes TT in Bentley et al. (7) was only 3%, whereas
it was 13% for the wattage in the present study. The differ-
ence in homogeneity between the studies may partly explain
the different results. Lactate threshold in %V_ O2max did not
correlate significantly with TT performance in the present
study. This supports the results from Bangsbo (5), Helgerud
et al. (15,16), Støren et al. (28,30), and Sunde et al. (31),
the TM
2372 Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research
Copyright © National Strength and Conditioning Association Unauthorized reproduction of this article is prohibited.
indicating that the adaptability of LT %V_ O2max to endurance
training tends to be minor.
The combination of aerobic and anaerobic endurance
capacity was calculated by the formula presented in equa-
tion 1.When using this formula, it showed a strong corre-
lation with TT laboratory performance (r = 0.93, p , 0.01),
with the lowest SEE (5.7%). Variation inflation factor values
between 1.04 and 1.4, together with tolerance values between
0.714 and 0.961 did not indicate collinearity between the dif-
ferent single variables in this equation. Results from the pres-
ent study thus support the equation from di Prampero (11).
The almost identical result from the aerobic version of this
formula indicates that anaerobic capacity plays an almost neg-
ligible role for TT laboratory performance in this material of
relatively heterogeneous (coefficient of variance = 14.3% for
TT laboratory performance) cyclists. With a more homoge-
nous group regarding TT laboratory performance, the impor-
tance of anaerobic capacity could have been greater.
Anaerobic endurance capacity could also have been of greater
importance if the TT was shorter.
The participants in the present study were all competitive
cyclists but may be characterized as a heterogeneous
performance group. In a heterogeneous group of competitive
cyclists such as that in the present study, V_ O2max expressed
as ml$kg20.67$min21 thus seems to be an important predic-
tor for TT laboratory performance. The importance of
V_ O2max for endurance performance in a heterogeneous
group regarding both performance and V_ O2max and the
lesser importance of CC is in-line with results from Conley
and Krahenbuhl (9), although potentially, the origins and
impact of economy could be different in cycling compared
with running. Conley and Krahenbuhl (9) showed the exact
opposite (CC accounted for 65% of the variation in endur-
ance running performance), but in a group of well-trained
runners with similar V_ O2max. Lucia et al. (23), on the other
hand, have shown CC to play an important role in endurance
cycling performance capacity among world class cyclist,
even though these cyclists differed considerably in V_ O2max.
The present study thus shows that even with a large set of
variables tested, both physiological and anthropometrical,
only V_ O2max and CC and the combination of these 2 varia-
bles seem to be able to explain substantially a part of the
interindividual differences in TT laboratory performance.
PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS
Results from the present study show that a formula repre-
senting both aerobic and anaerobic endurance capacity
correlated strongly with TT laboratory performance in
a heterogeneous performance group of competitive cyclists.
However, the role of anaerobic endurance capacity tended
to be minor. The single physiological variable that correlated
best with TT laboratory performance was power output at
lactate threshold, which was mainly determined by V_ O2max
and CC. Based on these results, we would advise a focus on
improving V_ O2max, e.g., by performing high-intensity aerobic

interval training (15,28). Although there was no correlation
between maximal strength per se and CC in the present study
or in the studies by Støren et al. (30) or Sunde et al. (31), the 2
previous studies (30,31) have shown a correlation between
improvements in maximal strength by performing maximal
strength training and improvements in cost of running (CR)
and CC. We would thus also recommend maximal strength
training to improve TT cycling performance.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
There is no conflict of interest. No grant funding was
received for this project, and no companies or manufacturers
will benefit from the results of the present study. The results
of the present study do not constitute endorsement of
the product by the authors or the National Strength and
Conditioning Association.
REFERENCES
1. Aagaard, P, Andersen, JL, Bennekou, M, Larsson, B, Olesen, JL,
Crameri, R, Magnusson, SP, and Kjæer, M. Effects of resistance
training on endurance capacity and muscle fiber composition in young
top-level cyclists. Scand J Med Sci Sports 21: e298–e307, 2011.
2. Anderson, T. Biomechanics and running economy. Sports Med
22: 76–89, 1996.
3. Åstrand, PO and Rodahl, K. Textbook of Work Physiology (3rd ed.).
McGraw-Hill, 1986. pp. 325, 326, 654.
4. Balmer, J, Davison, RCR, and Bird, SR. Peak power predicts
performance power during an outdoor 16.1-km cycling time trial.
Med Sci Sports Exerc 32: 1485–1490, 2000.
5. Bangsbo, J. Estimation of lactate release from contracting muscles in
man. Acta Physiol Scand 150: 349–350, 1994.
6. Bassett, DR Jr and Howley, ET. Limiting factors for maximum
oxygen uptake and determinants of endurance performance. Med Sci
Sports Exerc 32: 70–84, 2000.
7. Bentley, DJ, McNaughton, LR, Thompson, D, Vleck, VE, and
Batterham, AM. Peak power output, the lactate threshold, and time
trial performance in cyclists. Med Sci Sports Exerc 33: 2077–2081, 2001.
8. Bunc, V. Energy cost of treadmill running in non-trained females
differing in body fat. J Sports Med Phys Fitness 40: 290–296, 2000.
9. Conley, DL and Krahenbuhl, GS. Running economy and distance
running performance of highly trained athletes. Med Sci Sports Exerc
12: 357–360, 1980.
10. Davies, CTM and Thompson, MW. Aerobic performance of female
marathon and male ultramarathon athletes. Eur J Appl Physiol
41: 233–245, 1979.
11. di Prampero, PE. Factors limiting maximal performance in humans.
Eur J Appl Physiol 90: 420–429, 2003.
12. Grant, S, Craig, I, Wilson, J, and Aitchison, T. The relationship
between 3 km running performance and selected physiological
variables. J Sports Sci 15: 403–410, 1997.
13. Green, JM, McLester, JR, Crews, TR, Wickwire, PJ, Pritchett, RC,
and Lomax, RG. RPE association with lactate and heart rate
during high-intensity interval cycling. Med Sci Sports Exerc 38:
167–172, 2006.
Copyright © National Strength and Conditioning Association Unauthorized reproduction of this article is prohibited.
the TM
Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research | www.nsca.com
14. Helgerud, J, Engen, LC, Wisløff, U, and Hoff, J. Aerobic endurance
training improves soccer performance. Med Sci Sports Exerc 33:
1925–1931, 2001.
15. Helgerud, J, Høydal, K, Wang, E, Karlsen, T, Berg, P, Bjerkaas, M,
Simonsen, T, Helgesen, C, Hjort, N, Bach, R, and Hoff, J. Aerobic
high-intensity intervals improve VO2max more than moderate
training. Med Sci Sports Exerc 39: 665–671, 2007.
16. Helgerud, J, Ingjer, F, and Strømme, SB. Sex differences in
performance-matched marathon runners. Eur J Appl Physiol 61:
433–439, 1990.
17. Helgerud, J, Storen, O, and Hoff, J. Are there differences in running
economy at different velocities for well-trained distance runners? Eur
J Appl Physiol 108: 1099–1105, 2010.
18. Hoff, J and Helgerud, J. Endurance and strength training for soccer
players. Sports Med 34: 165–180, 2004.
19. Hoff, J, Kemi, OJ, and Helgerud, J. Strength and endurance
differences between elite and junior elite ice hockey players. The
importance of allometric scaling. Int J Sports Med 26: 537–541, 2005.
20. Ingjer, F. Maximal oxygen uptake as a predictor of performance
ability in woman and men elite cross-country skiers. Scand J Med Sci
Sports 1: 25–30, 1991.
21. Joyner, MJ and Coyle, EF. Endurance exercise performance: The
physiology of champions. J Physiol 586: 35–44, 2008.
22. Lucia, A, Esteve-Lanao, J, Olivan, J, Gomez-Gallego, F, San
Juan, AF, Santiago, C, Perez, M, Chamorro-Vina, C, and Foster, C.
Physiological characteristics of the best Eritrean runners–
exceptional running economy. Appl Physiol Nutr Metab 37: 1231–
1236, 2006.
23. Lucia, A, Hoyos, M, Pèrez, M, Santalla, A, and Chicharro, JL.
Inverse relationship between VO2max and economy/efficiency in
world-class cyclists. Med Sci Sports Exerc 34: 2079–2084, 2002.
24. Lucia, A, Hoyos, M, Santalla, A, Pèrez, M, and Chicharro, JL.
Kinetics of VO2max in professional cyclists. Med Sci Sports Exerc 34:
326–331, 2002.
25. Mujika, I and Padilla, S. Physiological and performance
characteristics of male professional road cyclists. Sports Med 31: 479–
487, 2001.
26. Østerås, H, Helgerud, J, and Hoff, J. Maximal strength-training
effects on force-velocity and force-power relationships explain
increases in aerobic performance in humans. Eur J Appl Physiol
88: 255–263, 2002.
27. Støa, EM, Støren, Ø, Enoksen, E, and Ingjer, F. Percent utilization of
VO2max at 5-km competition velocity does not determine time
performance at 5 km among elite distance runners. J Strength Cond
Res 24: 1340–1345, 2010.
28. Støren, Ø, Bratland-Sanda, S, Haave, M, and Helgerud, J. Improved
VO2max and time trial performance with more high aerobic intensity
interval training and reduced training volume; a case study on an
elite national cyclist. J Strength Cond Res 26: 2705–2711, 2012.
29. Støren, Ø, Helgerud, J, and Hoff, J. Running stride peak forces
inversely determine running economy in elite runners. J Strength
Cond Res 25: 117–123, 2011.
30. Støren, Ø, Helgerud, J, Støa, EM, and Hoff, J. Maximal strength
training improves running economy in distance runners. Med Sci
Sports Exerc 40: 1087–1092, 2008.
31. Sunde, A, Støren, Ø, Bjerkaas, M, Larsen, MH, Hoff, J, and
Helgerud, J. Maximal strength training improves cycling economy
in competitive cyclists. J Strength Cond Res 24: 2157–2165, 2009.
VOLUME 27 | NUMBER 9 | SEPTEMBER 2013 | 2373