KADHIM FALAH NADHIM

fUNDAMENTALS OF
EARTHMOVING
estimation

KADHIM FALAH NADHIM

GROUP B

Fourth Year of Study

MORNING STUDIES

2019-2020
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FUNDAMENTALS OF EARTHMOVING

Introduction: Earthmoving is the process of moving soil or rock from one location to another,
and in some cases, processing it to meet contract specification requirements. Earthmoving
construction tasks include excavating, loading, hauling, spreading, compacting, and grading. To
determine equipment productivity for a specific task, you must understand both the physical
characteristics of the material to be moved and the performance characteristics of the equipment
to be used.

The sequence of earthmoving tasks involved in site work include:

• Clearing and grubbing, which means the removal of vegetation

• Removal of topsoil, which contains organic material and is unsuitable for construction use
• Excavation for utilities and building foundation
• Removal of excess excavated material not needed for backfill
• Backfill of utility trenches and around foundation, and compaction of fill material
• Grading of site to meet contract requirements
• Spreading and compacting soil in areas to be paved
• Spreading topsoil and landscaping

Rolling Resistance(1)

Rolling resistance is the resistance of the equipment operating surface to the forward or reverse
movement of a piece of wheeled equipment as illustrated in Figure 1. It does not apply to tracked
equipment, because the idler, rollers, and sprocket always run on steel track rails. It results from
internal friction of the wheel bearings, tire flexing, and penetration of the operating surface due to
the pressure of the tires. For example, loose sand or mud provide more rolling resistance than does
a compacted clay surface, because of tire penetration into the sand or mud. Penetration is not
necessary if the operating surface deflects under load. Rolling resistance is expressed in pounds of
resistance per ton of gross vehicle weight. Gross vehicle weight is the weight of the piece of
equipment without load plus the weight of any load that it is carrying. It varies with the size, air
pressure, and tread of the tires and the condition of the operating surface. The resisting force caused
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by the rolling resistance (FRR) that acts against the forward or reverse movement of the equipment
can be estimated with Equation

R=FRR /w

where R is Rolling Resistance (kg or lb/ ton) & FRR The resisting force (Ib or Kg)

W Gross vehicle weight (tons)

Figure 1 Rolling Resistance

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Example 1(2)

Calculate the tractive effort generated by a 46 tons loaded scraper traveling on a

maintained dirt haul route where rolling resistance (50 lbs/ton).

Solution:

tractive effort = 46 tons* (50 lbs/ton)= 2300 lbs

Grade Resistance(2)

Grade resistance is the force-opposing movement of a vehicle up a frictionless slope (does not
include rolling resistance). The effort required to move a vehicle up a sloping surface increases
approximately in proportion to the slope of the surface. The effort required to move a vehicle down
a sloping surface decreases approximately in proportion to the slope of the surface. For slopes less
than 10%, the effect of grade increases for a plus slope and decreases for a minus slope. The
required tractive effort increases or decreases 20 lbs per gross ton of weight for each 1% of grade.(2)

Figure 2 Grade resistance

tractive effort(KG) =W*10*SLOPE

tractive effort(Ib) =W*20*SLOPE

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Example 2 The scraper in the previous example must haul up a 3% grade on part of the
haul route.

Solution

Grade resistance = 3% (46 tons) (20 lbs /ton/% grade) = 2760 lbs.

Total resistance =rolling resistance + grade resistance

2300 lbs+2760 lbs=5060Ib

Coefficient of Traction: (3)

The total energy of an engine in any unit of equipment designed primarily for pulling load can be
converted into tractive effort only if sufficient traction can be developed between the driving
wheels or tracks and the haul surface. If there is not sufficient traction, the full power of the engine
cannot be used, and the wheels or tracks will slip on the surface. The coefficient of traction between
rubber tires or crawler tracks and different surfaces is important to the operators of hauling units.
The coefficient of traction may be defined as the factor by which the total load on a driving tire or
track should be multiplied in order to determine the maximum possible tractive force between the
tire or track and the surface just before slipping will occur. The coefficient of traction between
rubber tires and road surface varies with the type of tread on the tires and with the road surface.
The coefficient of traction between crawler tracks and road surface varies with the design of the
grouser and the road surface.

Example 3 Assume that a tractor has a total weight of (17000 kg) on the two driving tires. The
maximum rimpull in low gear is (9000 kg). If the tractor is operating in wet sand, with a coefficient
of traction of (0.3):

1. Find the maximum possible rim pull prior to slippage of the tires.

2. Find the maximum possible rim pull prior to slippage of the tires, if the same tractor is operating
on dry clay, with a coefficient of traction of (0.6).
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Solution:

1. For wet sand, the maximum possible rim pull prior to slippage of the tires will be:

0.317000 = 5100 kg < 9000 kg

Regardless of the power of the engine, not more than 5400 kg of tractive effort may be used
because of the slippage of the wheels.

2. For dry clay, the maximum possible rim pull prior to slippage of the tires will be: 0.617000 =
10200 kg For this surface the engine will not be able to cause the tires to slip. Thus, the full power
of the engine may be used.

Drawbar Pull(3)

The available pull which a crawler tractor can exert on a load that is being towed is referred to as
the drawbar pull of the tractor. The pull is expressed in kilograms. If the crawler tractor tows a
load up a slope, then, its drawbar pull will be reduced by 10 Kg/ton for each 1% slope. In testing
a tractor to determine the maximum drawbar pull at each of the available speeds, the haul road is
calculated to have a rolling resistance of (50 Kg/ton). If a tractor is used on a haul road whose
rolling resistance is higher or lower than (50 Kg/ton), the drawbar pull will be reduced or increased,
respectively, by an amount equal to the weight of the tractor in tons multiplied by the variation of
the haul road from (50 Kg/ton).
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Example 4 A crawler tractor whose weight is (15 tons) has a drawbar pull of (2000 kg) in sixth
gear when operated on a level road having a rolling resistance of (50 kg/ton); if the same tractor
is operated on another level road having a rolling resistance of (82 kg/ton) then:

1. Will the drawbar pull of the tractor be reduced or increased, find the effective drawbar pull?

2. If the road have a slope of (3%), what will the effective drawbar pull be, if the tractor moves:
a) Up the road.

b) Down the road.

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Example 5 A tractor whose weight is (15 tons) has a drawbar pull of (2000 kg) in sixth gear
when operated on a level road having a rolling resistance of (50 kg/ton); if the same tractor is
operated on another level road having a rolling resistance of (30 kg/ton) then:

1. Will the drawbar pull of the tractor be reduced or increased, find the effective drawbar pull?

2. If the road have a slope of (3%), what will the effective drawbar pull be, if the tractor moves:

a) Up the road.

b) Down the road

Note: The drawbar pull of a crawler tractor will vary indirectly with the speed of each gear; it is highest
in the first gear and lowest in the top gear. Specification supplied by the manufacturer should give the
maximum speed and drawbar pull for each of the several gears.
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Rim Pull(2)

Rim pull is a term which is used to designate the tractive force between the rubber tires of driving
wheels and the surface on which they travel. Rim pull is expressed in kilograms, and it may be
determined from Eq

Example 6 A tractor whose weight is (12.4 tons) has a maximum rim pull in the first gear of
(6228 kg), is operated up a haul road with a slope of (2%) and a rolling resistance of (45 kg/ton);
determine the rim pull available for towing a load.

Solution:

The rim pull available for towing a load will be determined as follows:

Maximum rim pull= 6228 kg

Pull required to overcome grade= 12.410 2 = 248 kg

Pull required to overcome rolling resistance= 12.445 = 558 kg

Total pull to be deducted= 248 + 558 = 806 kg

Pull available for towing a load= 6228 − 806 = 5422 kg

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Example 7 A wheel-type tractor with a (250 hp) engine weights (12.4 tons) has a maximum
speed of (8Km/hr) in the first gear, is operated up a haul road with a slope of (2%) and a rolling
resistance of (50 Kg/ton); determine the rim pull available for towing a load if the efficiency was
80%.

Effects of Altitude(1)

At higher altitudes, internal combustion engines lose power because of the decreased density of
the air that affects the fuel-to-air ratio in the combustion chamber of the engine, and the available
drawbar pull or rimpull will be less.

• For four-cycle, naturally aspirated engines, engine performance is about the same up to
1,000 feet
and then decreases about 3% for each 1,000 feet above 1,000 feet

• For two-cycle, naturally aspirated engines; engine performance decreases about 1.5% for
each 1,000 feet above sea level up to 6,000 feet, and 3% for each 1,000 feet above 6,000
feet.
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Lose due to altitude = Derating Factor * hp

Example 8 Engine ( tow - cycle ) with 100 horsepower at sea level , determine the power at
9000ftm above sea level .

𝟎.𝟎𝟏𝟓∗𝟗𝟎𝟎𝟎
Derating Factor= =0.135
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎

Lose due to altitude=0.135*100=13.5 hours

Effective power=100-13.5=86.5 hours

Equipment Performance

The productivity of earthmoving equipment is determined by the volume of material carried per
load and the number of loads carried (or cycles) per hour. The volume carried is a function of the
material characteristics (swell and density) and the equipment capacity. The cycle time is a
function of fixed time (load and unload time) and variable time (travel time). Travel time is a
function of the equipment speed that is a function of the total resisting forces and available traction.
Let’s look at three example problems to illustrate these principles

References
1. CONSTRUCTION EQUIPMENT MANAGEMENT John E. Schaufelberger

2. Construction Equipment Management for Engineers, Estimators, and Owners

DOUGLAS D. GRANSBERG

CALIN M. POPESCU

RICHARD C. RYAN

3. Ch.-3- Engineering Fundamental of Moving Earth Layla Ali Ghalib-(2013-2014)