PROBABILITY OF ERROR

and BIT ERROR RATE

Probability of Error
 is a theoretical (mathematical) expectation of the bit error
for a given system.
 is a function of the carrier-to-
noise performance ratio (or,
more specifically, the average
energy per bit-to-noise power
density ratio) and the number
of possible encoding conditions
used (M-ary)
Probability of Error
Carrier-to-noise power ratio is the ratio of the average
carrier power (the combined power of the carrier and its
associated sidebands) to the thermal noise power.
𝑪 𝑪 𝑪 𝑪 𝑪
= ; 𝒅𝑩 = 𝟏𝟎 𝒍𝒐𝒈 𝒐𝒓 𝒅𝑩 = 𝑪𝒅𝑩𝒎 − 𝑵𝒅𝑩𝒎
𝑵 𝑲𝑻𝑩 𝑵 𝑵 𝑵

where
N = thermal noise power;
K = Boltzmann’s constant;
T = temp in Kelvin;
B = bandwidth
Probability of Error
Energy per bit is simply the energy of a single bit of
information
𝑱 𝑪
𝑬𝒃 = 𝑪𝑻𝒃 ( ); 𝑬𝒃 =
𝒃𝒊𝒕 𝒇𝒃
where
Eb = energy per bit;
C = carrier power;
Tb = time of a single bit;
fb = bit rate
Probability of Error
Noise power density Energy per bit-to-noise power density
is the thermal noise ratio is used to compare two or more
power normalized to digital modulation systems that uses
a 1-Hz bandwidth different transmission rates (bit rates),
(i.e., the noise power modulation schemes or encoding
present in a 1-Hz techniques. 𝑬𝒃 𝑪𝑩
bandwidth) =
Eb/No normalizes all multiphase 𝑵𝒐 𝑵𝒇𝒃
𝑵 𝑾 modulation schemes to a common noise
𝑵𝒐 =
𝑩 𝑯𝒛 bandwidth, allowing for a simpler and
more accurate comparison of their error
performance.
Sample Problem
For a QPSK system and the given parameters, determine
carrier power in dBm, noise power in dBm, noise power
density in dBm, energy per bit in dBJ, carrier-to-noise power
ratio in dB and Eb/No ratio.
C = 10-12 W C = -90 dBm Eb = -167 dBJ
N = 1.2x10-14 W N = -109.2 dBm C/N = 19.2 dB
fb = 60 kbps
No = -160 dBm Eb/No = 22.2 dB
B = 120 kbps
Bit Error Rate
 is an empirical (historical) record of a system’s actual bit error
performance.
 is measured and compared with the expected probability of error
to evaluate a system’s performance.
 Difference between P(e) of 10-5 and BER of 10-5
MULTIPLEXING
MULTIPLEXING
 In telecommunications and computer networks,
multiplexing (sometimes contracted to muxing) is a method
by which multiple analog or digital signals are combined
into one signal over a shared medium
 the transmission medium can be metallic wire
pair, a coaxial cable, a PCS mobile telephone, a
terrestrial microwave radio system, a satellite
microwave system, or an optical fiber cable.
The aim is to share an expensive resource
MULTIPLEXING
 The multiplexing divides the capacity of the
communication channel into several logical channels, one
for each message signal or data stream to be transferred. A
reverse process, known as demultiplexing, extracts the
original channels on the receiver end.
 A device that performs the multiplexing is called a
multiplexer (MUX), and a device that performs the reverse
process is called a demultiplexer (DEMUX or DMX).
Time Division Multiplexing
 Time-division multiplexing (TDM) is used primarily
for digital signals, but may be applied
in analog multiplexing in which two or more signals or bit
streams are transferred appearing simultaneously as sub-
channels in one communication channel, but are physically
taking turns on the channel.
 The time domain is divided into several recurrent time
slots of fixed length, one for each sub-channel. A sample
byte or data block of sub-channel 1 is transmitted during
time slot 1, sub-channel 2 during time slot 2, etc.
Time Division Multiplexing
Time Division Multiplexing
 One TDM frame consists of one time slot per sub-channel
plus a synchronization channel and sometimes error
correction channel before the synchronization. After the last
sub-channel, error correction, and synchronization, the
cycle starts all over again with a new frame, starting with
the second sample, byte or data block from sub-channel 1,
etc.
Time Division Multiplexing
APPLICATIONS
 The plesiochronous digital hierarchy (PDH) system, also
known as the PCM system, for digital transmission of several
telephone calls over the same four-wire copper cable (T-
carrier or E-carrier) or fiber cable in the circuit switched
digital telephone network
 The synchronous digital hierarchy (SDH)/synchronous
optical networking (SONET) network transmission standards
that have replaced PDH.
Time Division Multiplexing
 The Basic Rate Interface and Primary Rate Interface for
the Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN).
 The RIFF (WAV) audio standard interleaves left and right
stereo signals on a per-sample basis
Time Division Multiplexing
T-CARRIER SYSTEM
 The T-carrier system, introduced by the Bell System in the
U.S. in the 1960s, was the first successful system that
supported digitized voice transmission. The original
transmission rate of a T1 line is 1.544 Mbps
 The T-carrier system is entirely digital, using pulse code
modulation (PCM) and time-division multiplexing (TDM).
The system uses four wires and provides duplex capability
(for receiving and for sending at the same time).
Time Division Multiplexing
T1-CARRIER SYSTEM
 In the T1 system, voice or other analog signals are
sampled 8,000 times a second and each sample is digitized
into an 8-bit word. With 24 channels being digitized at the
same time, a 192-bit frame (24 channels each with an 8-bit
word) is thus being transmitted 8,000 times a second. Each
frame is separated from the next by a single bit, making a
193-bit block. The signaling bits are the least significant bits
in each frame.
Time Division Multiplexing
The T1 digital stream consists of 24 64-Kbps* channels that
are multiplexed.
* The standardized 64 Kbps channel is based on
the bandwidth required for a voice conversation.
Time Division Multiplexing
T-CARRIER SYSTEM

T-CARRIER NO OF CHANNELS per TRANSMISSION MEDIUM DISTANCE

FRAME RATE
T1 24 1.544 Mbps Twisted pair metallic cable 1 mi to 50 mi
T2 96 6.312 Mbps Twisted pair copper wire Up to 500 mi
T3 672 44.736 Mbps 3A-RDS coaxial cable Up to 500 mi
T4 4032 274.176 Mbps T4M coaxial cable Up to 500 mi
T5 8064 560.16 Mbps Coaxial cable Up to 500 mi
Time Division Multiplexing
E-CARRIER SYSTEM
 The E-carrier is a member of the series of carrier
systems developed for digital transmission of many simultaneous
telephone calls by time-division multiplexing.
 The European Conference of Postal and Telecommunications
Administrations (CEPT) originally standardized the E-carrier system,
which revised and improved the earlier American T-carrier
technology, and this has now been adopted by the International
Telecommunication Union Telecommunication Standardization
Sector (ITU-T).
Time Division Multiplexing
E1-CARRIER SYSTEM
 An E1 link operates over two separate sets of wires,
usually Unshielded twisted pair (balanced cable) or
using coaxial (unbalanced cable). The line data rate is
2.048 Mbit/s (full duplex, i.e. 2.048 Mbit/s downstream and
2.048 Mbit/s upstream) which is split into 32 timeslots, each
being allocated 8 bits in turn. Thus each timeslot sends and
receives an 8-bit PCM sample, usually encoded according to A-
law algorithm, 8,000 times per second (8 × 8,000 × 32 =
2,048,000).
Time Division Multiplexing
E1-CARRIER SYSTEM
The E1 frame defines a cyclical set of 32 time slots of 8 bits.
The time slot 0 is devoted to transmission management and
time slot 16 for signaling; the rest were assigned originally
for voice/data transport.
Time Division Multiplexing
Time Division Multiplexing
TYPES OF TDM
 Synchronous
Synchronous TDM works by the mutliplexer giving exactly
the same amount of time to each device connected to it.
This time slice is allocated even if a device has nothing to
transmit. This is wasteful in that there will be many times
when allocated time slots are not being used. Therefore, the
use of Synchronous TDM does not guarantee maximum line
usage and efficiency.
Synchronous TDM is used in T1 and E1 connections.
Time Division Multiplexing
TYPES OF TDM
 Asynchronous
Asynchronous TDM is a more flexible method of TDM. With
Asynchronous TDM the length of time allocated is not fixed for each
device but time is given to devices that have data to transmit.
This version of TDM works by tagging each frame with an
identification number to note which device it belongs to. This may
require more processing by the multiplexor and take longer,
however, the time saved by efficient and effective bandwidth
utilization makes it worthwhile.
Time Division Multiplexing
TYPES OF TDM
 Asynchronous
Asynchronous TDM allows more devices than there is physical
bandwidth for.
This type of TDM is used in Asynchronous Transfer Mode
(ATM) networks.
Frequency Division Multiplexing
 Frequency-division multiplexing (FDM) is inherently an
analog technology. The bandwidth of the link (in Hertz) >=
combined bandwidth of the signal transmitted. FDM
achieves the combining of several signals into one medium
by sending signals in several distinct frequency ranges over
a single medium. In FDM, the signals are electrical signals.
Frequency Division Multiplexing
 With FDM, each narrowband channel is converted to a
different location in the total frequency spectrum. The
channels are stacked on the top of one another in the
frequency domain.
Frequency Division Multiplexing

 Channels can be separated by strips of unused bandwidths called

guard bands to prevent from overlapping.
Frequency Division Multiplexing
Frequency Division Multiplexing
A common example of FDM use is Cable television (CATV). This can
be achieved with coaxial cable or fiber-optic cable.
A multiplexer is used to combine many channels to maximize the use
of the available bandwidth and a de-multiplexer built into the
television or set top box will separate the channel that the viewer
wants to watch.
Wavelength Division Multiplexing
 Wavelength-division multiplexing (WDM) is a technique in fiber
optic transmission that enables the use of multiple light wavelengths
(or colors) to send data over the same medium. Two or more colors
of light can travel on one fiber and several signals can be transmitted
in an optical waveguide at differing wavelengths.
 The use of WDM can multiply the effective bandwidth of a fiber
optic communications system by a large factor, but its cost must be
weighed against the alternative of using multiple fibers bundled into
a cable. A fiber optic repeater device called the erbium amplifier can
make WDM a cost-effective long-term solution.
Wavelength Division Multiplexing
Wavelength Division Multiplexing
There are two types of WDM today:
 Coarse WDM (CWDM): WDM systems with fewer than eight active
wavelengths per fiber.
 CWDM is defined by wavelengths.
 CWDM is for short-range communications, so it employs wide-
range frequencies with wavelengths spread far apart. Standardized
channel spacing permits room for wavelength drift as lasers heat up
and cool down during operation. CWDM is a compact and cost-
effective option when spectral efficiency is not an important
requirement.
Wavelength Division Multiplexing
 Dense WDM (DWDM): DWDM is for systems with more than eight
active wavelengths per fiber.
 DWDM is defined in terms of frequencies.
 DWDM’s tighter wavelength spacing fits more channels onto a
single fiber, but cost more to implement and operate. DWDM dices
spectrum finely, fitting 40-plus channels into the same frequency
range used for two CWDM channels.
Wavelength Division Multiplexing
 DWDM is designed for long-haul transmission, with wavelengths
packed tightly together. Vendors have found various techniques for
cramming 40, 88, 96, or 120 wavelengths of fixed spacing into a fiber.
When boosted by Erbium Doped-Fiber Amplifiers (EDFAs)—a
performance enhancer for high-speed communications—these
systems can work over thousands of kilometers.
Wavelength Division Multiplexing
Line Sharing
Multiplexing is a powerful technique for getting slow
devices access to a fast communications link, however, this
only works for devices that can easily be connected to the
multiplexor, i.e. the devices have to be in the same location.
What can be done for devices that are in different
locations?
Line Sharing
The solution is to set up a multi-dropping system. This
means that devices are connected to the fast line along its
length. The drawback with multi-dropping is that more than
one device may wish to use the line at the same time. This is
a contention issue, i.e. all of the devices and terminals are
contending for the fast link.
Line Sharing
There are two ways of overcoming this problem:
 Polling: In this system all communication takes place
under a monitoring computer's control. This computer will
poll or contact each terminal in turn at regular intervals to
find out if the device wants to transmit. If it does then
transmission can take place and if not the computer can
continue polling.
Line Sharing
Interrupts: In this system if a device wants to transmit it
will send a control message to the controlling computer to
state that it is ready to send. This control message
interrupts the computer from its processing, alerting it to
the devices needs. The controlling computer will then, if
appropriate, allow the device to transmit.