Feasibility of Using Photovoltaic (PV) Technology

to Generate Solar Energy in Sarawak

Mujahid Tabassum
Faculty of Engineering Computing and
Science
Swinburne University of Technology
Sarawak campus
93350 Kuching, Malaysia
Email: mtabassum@swinburne.edu.my
Saad Bin Abul Kashem
Faculty of Engineering Computing and
Science
Swinburne University of Technology
Sarawak campus
93350 Kuching, Malaysia
Email: skashem@swinburne.edu.my
Md Bazlul Mobin Siddique
Faculty of Engineering Computing and
Science
Swinburne University of Technology
Sarawak campus
93350 Kuching, Malaysia
Email: msiddique@swinburne.edu.my

Abstract – In this research paper, we have discussed solar
energy technology types including photovoltaic cells, solar thermal
and concentrated solar panels. We have analyzed methods,
advantages, and drawbacks of following technology and gave our
suggestions towards current need. Photovoltaic cells technology is
the most sustainable technology to be applied in Sarawak. The
feasibility of using solar cells in Sarawak was studied and analyzed
using Photovoltaic Geographical Information System Asia
(PGISA). The results showed the optimum tilt, optimum
orientation and the best PV cells technology to be used and
implemented. Tracking technology is vital in maximizing the
insolation received by the panels. The major drawback with PV
cells is its inefficiency as a lot of energy was lost in the system; for
example, the inverter and cables caused huge loss of energy. In
Sarawak only 25% of energy demand is covered by solar energy
and remaining 75% of energy is covered by other energy sources.
Solar energy in Sarawak can play a vital role though, since it is
highly potential especially if it is utilized in correct way; however,
startup costs and more studies are needed to be done.
Keywords – photovoltaic cells; solar Energy; concentrated solar
power; polycrystalline silicone; cadmium telluride; CIS PV cells;
single-dual axis tracking.
I. INTRODUCTION
Only a small percentage of solar radiation which is produced
from the thermonuclear process in the sun reaches the earth. A
fraction of the total Solar radiation reaches the earth’s surface in
a day, which is called insolation. More specifically, it is the
energy from solar radiation received per given area, its unit is
watts per meter squared. Generally, solar energy is calculated
based on this idea; the more the insolation, the higher the
potential of solar energy. Malaysia lies on the equator; a region
with heavy rainfall, plenty of the sunshine and solar radiation;
however, a clear sky is rather rare. Obviously, this is a big
obstacle as it can block most of solar radiation exposure to reach
the earth’s surface. Malaysia as a whole has a daily average
insolation of 4.21-5.56 kWh/m2. Sarawak has 4 hours of average
sunshine per day. Malaysia makes use of the solar energy by
mostly using standalone PV systems, which generate electricity
in the rural areas. This expensive practice requires a lot of
subsidies from the government which are economically not
feasible.
Therefore, in this review we tried to find out the core
challenges to installation and usages of solar energy by detailed
discussion on this aspect and possible solutions to that
challenges.
II. LITERATURE REVIEW
Solar power is energy that is harnessed from the sun and
converted into either electric or thermal energy. Solar power is
the most abundant and clean source of energy with apparently
no harmful side effects. There are various ways to harness solar
power namely, solar cooling and heating, photovoltaic cells or
solar electric cells, passive solar and concentrating solar power.
A. Solar Thermal Energy
Solar thermal energy system uses thermal energy from
concentrated sunlight to boil water into steam, which is then
used to power a turbine to generate electricity. Different working
fluids are sometimes used to produce steam; these fluids can be
either liquid or gas depending on the application. The application
for solar thermal energy can extend from domestic uses to utility
scale plants [1].
1) System Types
a) Solar Thermal energy cooling systems: Solar thermal
power can also be used for cooling buildings or industrial
processes system: similar to refrigeration. This cooling process
occurs through evaporation and condensation. There are 2 types
of systems involved in solar thermal cooling, namely open and
closed systems. Closed systems include adsorption and
absorption refrigeration, while open systems involve sorption-
supported air conditioning which are the most widely used
systems.
b) Combi-systems: A solar combi system uses the heat
generated by the solar thermal collectors to provide heating in
winter and cooling in summer. The cold air is generated using a
thermally powered cooling machine; the benefit of using solar
thermal energy to power the chiller is that the high demand for
cooling is met with high solar radiation outside [2].
B. Heating Systems Process: Heating System Process collectors
can be categorized into non-concentrating collectors with
minimal heat loss semi-concentrating collectors and
concentrating tracking collectors. Depending on the type of
collectors being used, thermal energy can be used for heating
both air and water to be supplied to the process [3].

978-1-5386-0765-7/17/$31.00 ©2017 IEEE

11
 1) Concentrating Solar Power (CSP): Concentrating solar
power essentially uses mirrors to concentrate energy from the
sun to heat steam which then drives a traditional steam engine or
turbine which generates electricity. Thermal energy harnessed
by the CSP plants can be further stored and used to generate
electricity when required, regardless of the time of day.
CPS technology incorporates various systems to harness the
concentrated solar power, namely; Power Tower Systems, Dish
Engine Systems, Parabolic Troughs and Compact Liner Fresnel
Reflector [4]. The systems are discussed briefly below:
a) Power Tower System: A power tower system
incorporates a central receiver tower allowing for a higher
operating temperature, and therefore, a more efficient result. Flat
mirrors called heliostats are controlled by a computer to follow
the sun along two different axes and focus the harnessed solar
power at the central receiver on top of the tower. This focused
thermal energy is then used to heat a transfer fluid to over 500o
Celsius which is then used to heat water which produces steam
that is used to operate a central power generator. When molten
salt is used as the transfer fluid and energy storage medium,
energy can be stored efficiently, hence allowing for 24 hour
power generation [5].
b) Dish-Engine System: Mirrors are placed over a parabolic
dish like surface which focuses the sun’s thermal energy at a
receiver placed at the focal point. However, it is in contrast to
other CSP technologies that convert water into steam to generate
electricity via a turbine or engine. A dish engine system uses a
transfer fluid such as Hydrogen that is heated up to around 650o
Celsius in the receiver to drive an engine known as a Stirling
engine. The dishes in the dish engine system also rotate about 2
axes [6].
C. Key factors that affect Concentration Solar Power Plants:
While setting up a concentrating solar power plant (CSP), it
is important to take into account various factors which can either
contribute to the success or failure of the project [4].
a) Area of high direct normal sun radiation: Since a CSP
plant uses concentrated solar energy to operate, the area should
be selected where the plant can get high intensity of sun light.
This can be calculated by computing the direct normal intensity
of the sun’s energy at the specific area (DNI).
b) Land space with a minimal cloud cover: For a CSP plant to
operate at its most optimum rate and hence more cost effectively,
it needs to be built in capacities of 100MW or higher. Mean
while, however, the land space required depends on the
technology being utilized, a typical CSP plant covers around 5
to 10 acres or land per MW capacity. The large area is required
to accommodate for the thermal energy storage.
c) Access to water resources: Like any other thermal power
plant’s such as coal, nuclear and natural gas, a certain cooling
system is required in place. All solar power plants require a small
amount of water, for the washing of the collection and mirror
surfaces. A CSP plant uses wet, dry and hybrid cooling systems
to maximize the efficiency output in electricity generated and
water conservation. Capital and Financing: To construct and
maintain a Utility scale CSP plant security of investment is
12
required to a relatively new form of energy and feasible methods
of harnessing it.
D. Different types of Photovoltaic technology to be
implemented and investigated:
There are three different types of PV technology that will be
implemented and compared in this assignment, namely,
crystalline silicones, CIS and Cadmium telluride. These
different type PV technology will be investigated to find out
which of the three generate the highest power. These results will
be tabulated and discussed in the discussion section of this
report.
a) CIS technology: CIS technology is currently the most
innovative technology in regard to the serial production of solar
power. CIS stands for Copper Indium Selenium and is
advantageous over other technologies in terms of efficiency on
reducing environmental impact and power generation.
b) Cadmium Telluride: Cadmium telluride technology
uses a compound of cadmium telluride as a semiconductor to
convert the solar power generated by the sun into direct current
(DC). Cadmium offer a higher efficiency compared to Silicon
although it is harmful to the environment as Cadmium is
extremely toxic. Cadmium cells also require less energy to
produce electricity [7].
E. PV system losses:
There are various factors that can lead to the loss of energy
in an energy producing system; these factors must be considered
during the design of a solar power plant in order to get the best
efficiency output from the plant [8]. These losses include:
a) Inverter efficiency: For a solar power system that
is providing for the needs of an alternating current load, an
inverter is needed, there is a wide range of inverters that in return
also provide a wide range of efficiencies but the most common
choices typically give 80 to 90% of efficiency.
b) Battery Efficiency: Storage of power
generated batteries are required. Lead-acid batteries are the most
common type used. Although all batteries do discharge a certain
amount of the energy they retain, the efficiency of these batteries
is dependent on the design and quality of the components used.
A lead acid battery gives an efficiency of about 75-85%.
c) Shading: The duration to sunlight exposure can
cause a big change in the solar power generation. Solar cells are
typically connected in series to solar panels, so shades covering
one part of the panel would result in a loss in the overall output.
Cable thickness: Using a thicker cable will help prevent power
losses as it would provide lower resistance than thinner cables.
Another way to decrease losses would be to use higher voltage
from the source side.
d) Temperature: Solar panels work better in cooler
temperatures in contrast to hotter temperatures, in which the
ideal temperature for a solar panel to operate is at 25oC. Increase
in the temperature above 25 oC causes a small decay in the power
output generated. Therefore, it is important to have a cooling
system in place to help maximize the efficiency of the solar cells
and thereby boost production on site.
 F. Mounting Positions:
To evaluate the efficiency of the system set up, in this
report simulations are to be carried out using different mounting
positions namely, free standing and building integrated. These
results will be generated in the simulation phase of the project
before carrying out any sort of installation.
a) Free-standing systems: When space is available, solar
panels can be built free standing on the ground or a stand
provided. Freestanding panels generate the same amount of
electricity in comparison to building integrated systems;
however, they require an open area in order to be installed [9].
b) Building Integrated Systems: A building integrated
system involves integrating photovoltaic cells into the buildings
infrastructure such as the roof, or facades. Building Integrated
systems can add to the saving in resources and materials used in
the building[10].
G. Photovoltaic Cell System:
A system of photovoltaic cells comprises PV cells only; this
system of cells is called panels or arrays [11]. Very simply, it
can easily be used to operate a light bulb or a DC motor. In order
to operate more complicated electrical devices using PV cells,
an electronic converter is required. The same electronic
converter can be used to regulate the voltage and current
produced by the PV cells; this is helpful in controlling the power
flowing into grid-connected systems. Another use of electronic
converters is to be able to use maximum power point tracking;
which changes the voltage of the cells accordingly to keep the
power at the maximum level [12].
1) The way solar cells function: Photovoltaic cells are
mainly made of silicon. Silicon atom has unique properties
especially when it is in its crystalline structure; due to its electron
configuaration and sp3 hybridizationsilicone has crystalline
structure, this structure is very important in photovoltaic cells
[13]. However, due to unavailable free electron, in pure silicone
that the current produced is of a minuscule value [14]. To make
silicon work in a photovoltaic cell other atoms are mixed with it.
This is to enhance its electrical conductivity. Phosphorus is
usually added in silicon because it has 5 electrons in its outer
shell, 4 of its electrons are shared with a silicon atom leaving one
electron free to move; thus it conducst electricity. It takes a small
amount of energy to free the electron which has no bonds in a
silicon phosphorus mix, thus we have more free carriers than that
in pure silicone [15]. Adding phosphorus to silicone, the process
of making an element impure is called doping, creates a negative
region where free electrons prevail, this region is called n-type.
Doping is also used to add boron to silicone. Boron has 3
electrons in its outer shell all of them are shared with silicone
atoms; instead of possessing free electrons it has free openings
for electrons to join [15]. This makes it a positive region, also
called p-type. Both the p-type and n-type silicones are combined
to make a photovoltaic cell.
2) Functions within Photovoltaic Cell
When the p-type and n-type silicones are combined, the free
electrons from the n-type rush towards the positively charged
section to fill the voids are created. However, not all the
electrons manage to fill the voids, at the barrier between and p
13
and n-type silicone, the electrons are clumped; making it
difficult for electrons to get to the other side because of the
repulsion forces. At equilibrium, this phenomenon creates an
electric field between the different types of silicone [18]. A
diode is composed allowing the electrons to flow from the
positive region to the negative region only, given the difficulty
of electrons to flow to the positive reason because of the
repulsion at the junction. The electric field causes voltage; since
there is a difference in electric potential. Voltage and current are
required to create power. In order to keep the photons trapped
within the cell and not be reflected, the cell is coated with an
antireflective material, and all of this is covered by a glass plate;
to protect the cell from foreign elements [16].
3) Problems with a photovoltaic cell: When light hits the
photovoltaic cells, it carries many photons of different energy
levels, hence some photons don’t have enough energy to
displace an electron from its hole. Again, some photons possess
more energy than needed to displace an electron which then
turns into excess energy and dissipates. About 1.1 electron volts
are needed to displace an electro-hole pair for crystalline
silicone, this is called an energy band gap, and each material has
a different energy band gap. These two occurrences cause 70%
of the energy from the radiation to be wasted; either a photon
does not contain enough energy or it contains more energy than
needed. Using a material with lower band gap might mean that
the current is increased, however, at the same time, the voltage
will be decreased because the electric field will be weaker. This
change can result in lower power generated, it was calculated
that the optimal energy band is 1.4eV; balancing between the
current generated and electric potential of the cell [17].
Good conductors are essential to prevent losses. The bottom
of the PV cell can be covered with a metal conductor; however,
the top cannot be covered with a metal because it won’t allow
the photons to enter the cell. To compromise the cell is covered
with a metal grid; this shortens the distance the electrons have to
travel, and hence, minimizes the losses [1].
H. Tracking systems: Trackers direct the solar panels towards
the sun at all times throughout the day. Basically, the orientation
of the solar panel is changed to follow the sun’s track in order to
maximize the energy captured. In specific terms, the trackers
reduce the angle of incidence, between the incoming light and
the solar panel, hence, reduces the light that is reflected and
increases the energy that the system will produce. Sunlight
comprises two parts of direct beam which constitute; 90% of the
solar energy and the other part is the diffused sunlight. There are
two main types of tracking systems; i) single axis tracking and
ii) dual axis tracking.
1) Single axis tracking: Single axis tracking consists of a PV
panel on a tilted shaft and it rotates about that tilted shaft. This
rotation is caused by bi-directional DC motor, which gets the
information on the sun’s position via two light intensity sensors.
The light sensors are made up of two light dependent resistors,
they are placed on either side of the solar panel and an opaque
plate is used to separate them from one another. As the day
progresses and the position of the sun changes, the intensity of
light will also vary; creating inconsistency in the areas being
exposed to light on the solar panel. These differences might A. Using different PV technologies
mean that one LDR (Light Dependent Resistor) is being exposed The three PV technologies that we are compared were
to light and the other is being shadowed, this will mean that one crystalline silicon, CIS and cadmium telluride to see which PV
LDR will have very high resistance while the other has low technology would produce the highest amount of power.
resistance. Based on that, the LDR with low resistance will allow
a signal to be sent to the bi-directional DC motor, not only that
but the difference in resistance will also create a difference in
the voltage output. The motor will move the solar panel in a way
to decrease this voltage output and equalize the light intensity on
both LDRs [18].
2) Dual axis tracking: In dual axis tracking, the PV panel
captures the sunlight in four different directions. To elaborate,
the PV panels follow the angular height of the sun and also tracks
its east and west movements. In contrary to the single axis
tracking, this system measurement is the horizontal intensity of
the sun as well as the vertical intensity. This tracking system is
made up of two motors and two sets of light intensity sensors Fig A. The parameter and conditions for simulation used in
[19], one set is used to control the horizontal tracking and the this article
other set is used to control the vertical tracking of the system.
The light sensors send signals to the PIC microcontroller, which With all three PV technologies, the mounting position would be
in turn detects the stronger signal and commands the PV panel free standing at 0ͼ inclination and 0ͼ orientation, not to mention
to tilt either clockwise in the event that the sun moves in a that there would be no tracking device.
southern direction or an anti-clockwise direction if the sun is 1) Crystalline silicone
moving in the northern direction. This is how it maximizes the
energy generated.
I. Orientation and Inclination of solar panels: To maximize the
solar energy gathered by the solar panels, its orientation and
inclination must be based on the optimized sunlight reception.
The local climate and latitude affect the optimal orientation and
inclination. The rule is that, if the angle of inclination is equal to
the latitude of that location, then the insolation received will be
at a maximum. Some locations have disturbed weather patterns,
such as the average morning insolation is not symmetric to the Fig 1. Silicone cell graph for average electricity
average afternoon insolation. To compensate for the difference produced monthly.
in insolation between summer and winter in a given location, the
angle of inclination needs to be 10ͼ-15ͼ less than the latitude in From Fig.1, it can be deduced that from March to August the
summer and 10ͼ-15ͼ greater than the latitude in winter [12]. The average electricity produced was above 100kWh. The highest
PV peak power is greater in winter than in summer for a PV amount of electricity produced per month was 113kWh, which
panel that vertically faces south, because the sun’s angle in the occurred in August. The lowest electricity produced per month
northern hemisphere is lower than that in the southern is 88.4kWh in January. In April, the average daily sum of global
hemisphere. PV panels with 30ͼ inclination angle are 1% more irradiation per square meter received by the modules was 5.04
efficient than the PV panels with complete horizontal kWh/m2, which was the second highest value only below
inclination; this is due to the solar beams incidence angle being August, however, it did not produce the second highest amount
very perpendicular, and hence, it increases the light being of electricity per month; this was due to the temperature
reflected, not to mention the accumulation of dirt on the system fluctuations affecting the performance of the PV module, and
[20]. The farther away the system is placed from the equator, the lack of wind to cool it down. The total amount of electricity that
higher the angle of inclination will be. South oriented panels are the system produces was 1220kWh over the course of the year.
more efficient and generate more energy than any other panels.
2) CIS
III. SIMULATION Similar data were obtained for the CIS system. The
For the simulation purpose, PVGIS-Asia was used, which is electricity produced was above 100kWh from March to October.
an online program that can estimate the power output of different The highest amount of electricity produced per month was
PV installations. We decided to change 5 variables in the 116kWh in August; in contrast, the lowest amount of electricity
simulation in order to obtain the best PV system in Sarawak. In produced is in January with 90.5kWh of electricity produced.
the simulation, both the installed peak power and estimated When using CIS PV technology, we were able to produce 1250
system losses were kept unchanged, 1kWp and 14%, kWh electricity per year, which was larger by 50kWh than the
respectively. crystalline silicon PV technology.

14
3) Cadmium telluride:
CdTe cells showed a similar trend. From March to
December, the electricity produced was above 100kWh. The
highest amount of electricity was produced in August with a
value of 127kWh. On the other hand, in January, the electricity
produced was the lowest at 99.1 kWh. The total electricity
produced per year was 1370kWh, making it the PV technology
with the highest electricity production.
B. Mounting Position
Free standing
Building Integrated
Fig 2 Graph showing electricity production of a free
standing system vs. building integrated per month.
Fig. 2 clearly showed that free-standing PV systems
produced more electricity than building integrated systems. The
reason might be, the free-standing PV systems had room for the
wind to cool it from underneath, and thus, it’s temperature was
lowered so the performance of the PV cells is not lowered
significantly, while the building integrated system did not. The
total electricity produced from the free standing system was
1220kWh per year, whereas the total electricity produced by the
building integrated system was 1150kWh per year. The
difference can be illustrated as a percentage decrease from free
standing to building integrated,
ଵଶଶ଴ିଵଵହ଴
ൈ ͳͲͲΨ ൌ ͷǤ͹ͷΨ (Eq.1)
ଵଶଶ଴
C. Effect of Inclination and Orientation on the Electricity
Produced
From the simulation, it was observed that the east and west
orientations produced the highest amount of electricity
regardless of the inclination. This is because, in the equator, the
sun has high intensity from sunrise to sunset and less possibility
of being cloudy in the morning. The orientation of PV cells to
south or north will render in least production of electricity due
to the less surface area directed to the sun.
Fig 3. Inclination and Orientation graph for electricity per
year.
The optimum inclination obtained from the simulation was
2ͼ. This is because, in equator, in regions such as Sarawak, the
15
sun’s intensity can harness directly without the need of
inclination to face the sunlight. Sarawak is also mostly flat
terrain, therefore, the cell does not need to be placed at an angle
and only requires 10ͼ of inclination, maximum. This was
expected from the simulation result.
D. How do the different tracking devices affect the PV system?
Fig 4. Various tracking method graphs for electricity
produced per year.
The three different tracking devices were compared which
were vertical axis, inclined axis, and 2-axis tracking. The
inclination was kept at 0ͼ and the orientation towards the south.
The PV system was set as a free-standing mounting position and
made of crystalline silicon cell. The vertical and inclined angle
were optimally chosen by the program, which happened to be 1ͼ
and 2ͼ respectively.
From Fig. 4, 2-axis tracking system produced the highest
amount of electricity per year at 1490kWh; both vertical tracking
and inclined tracking produced 1450kWh of electricity per year.
The fluctuations between the vertical and inclined tracking
systems happened because the inclined system had a horizontal
axis rotation with an inclined PV cell; this means that it is
optimum to use only in certain months and not throughout the
year. This was true for the vertical axis tracking system as well.
Now that all the conditions had been compared, the best
conditions would be chosen and applied in Sarawak. Using a
cadmium telluride cell in a free standing position inclined at 0ͼ
facing the east direction with a 2-axis tracking system, the total
electricity it can produce per year was obtained from running the
simulation, which showed 1640kWh electricity production
through an entire year. These results were all of a 1kWp cell, if
the nominal peak power was to be increased, or if the area of the
system were enlarged, it would yield even higher values of
electricity. Increasing the efficiency of the system can also
hugely increase the electricity produced but that is costly and
requires a lot of research.
If all the system designed was used at 20kW nominal power,
then it would generate 32500kWh per year which is equal to
32.5MWh.
IV. DISCUSSION
A. Difference between PV technologies simulated:
We investigated the different types of PV technology to be
used and tabulated the results in the simulation section of this
report. From the results, we can see that using crystalline silicon
yielded a monthly energy output of 1220 kWh for an irradiation
per square meter of 1710 kWh/m2. Using CIS membranes, total
monthly energy output generated by the system was equal to
1250 kWh at the standard irradiation of 1710 kWh/m2.
However, using the Cadmium Telluride as the membranes in the
system, it was discovered that the energy output generated was
equal to 1370kWh at an irradiation of 1710 kWh/m2, yielding
the highest of the 3 systems.
B. Differences between free standing and building integrated
systems:
According to the data shown in the simulation carried out
between the free mounting and building integrated systems, free
standing systems generated a higher output in comparison to
building integrated systems. Free-standing systems can run at
cooler temperatures as they had an open access to the wind from
all directions, whereas a building integrated had less surface area
open to the air around it, and hence, less cooling of the system
would occur, resulting in a lower efficiency rate.
C. Effect of Inclination and Orientation
From the simulation, it was observed that the east and west
orientations produced the highest amount of electricity
regardless of the inclination. A PV cell oriented to the south
produces the least amount of electricity when varying the
inclination because it was facing away from the sun at all times,
and when it was inclined, then there would be less surface area
directed at the sun, hence less electricity was produced.
The optimum inclination obtained from the simulation was
2ͼ. This is because, in equator regions such as Sarawak, the sun’s
intensity can harness directly without the need of inclination to
face the sunlight. Sarawak is also mostly flat terrain; this means
that the cell does not need to be placed at an angle and only
requires 10ͼ of inclination maximum.
D. Best Tracking System to be Used
The best tracking system to be used in Sarawak and the
whole world is 2-axis tracking systems, although it is very
expensive. Vertical axis tracking and Inclined axis tracking
complement each other; when vertical axis tracking system
produces high amounts of electricity, then inclined axis tracking
system produces a low amount of electricity; this is because both
systems thrive in different conditions and situations, which are
the complete opposite of each other.
V. CONCLUSION
In conclusion, solar energy would be ideal for Sarawak given
its ideal location in the equatorial zone. If solar power is to be
implemented, it could overtake the current alternative source of
power to become the highest generator of an alternate source of
power. However, solar power is costly and requires a lot of
initial capital to run and enough capital to sustain the plant till
the break-even point it achieves. Solar power is a clean, harmless
and endless supply of energy, solar power can help drastically
cut down on utility costs and also help prevent increasing the
carbon footprint. PV technology is recommended to be
implemented in Sarawak as it is the most efficient method of
harvesting sunlight. This report investigates the different types
of PV technologies available and the various ways in which
these technologies can be utilized to increase the efficiency and
output yield too.
16
VI. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We would like to thank Abdurrahman Hafeel and Faisal Al
Sawafi, students of Swinburne University of Technology,
Sarawak, for their contributions to this research paper.
REFERENCES
[1] Solar Energy Industries Association, "Solar Energy," [Online].
Available: http://www.seia.org/about/solar-energy. [Accessed
10th April 2016].
[2] Hotel Energy Solutiona, "Renewable Energy Solutions," [Online].
Available: http://cf.cdn.unwto.orgs [Accessed 4th May 2016].
[3] Dena, "Solar thermal energy," Renewables - Made in Germany,
[Online]. Available: http://www.renewables-made-in-
germany.com [Accessed 2nd May 2016].
[4] S. E. Industries, "Concentrating Solar Power," 2011. [Online].
Available: http://www.seia.org/policy/solar-
technology/concentrating-solar-power. [Accessed 28th April
2016].
[5] National Renewable Energy Laboratory, "Concentrating Solar
Power Basics," 25 July 2015. [Online]. Available:
http://www.nrel.gov [Accessed 25 April 2016].
[6] Solar Energy Development Programmatic EIS, "Concentrating
Solar Power Technologies," [Online]. Available:
http://solareis.anl.gov/ [Accessed 19th April 2016].
[7] "Cadmium Tellurie Photvoltaics," [Online]. Available:
http://whatis.techtarget.com/definition/ [Accessed 3rd May 2016].
[8] "Solar Power for Ordinary People," 6th March 2013. [Online].
Available: https://livingonsolarpower.wordpress.com [Accessed
2nd May 2016].
[9] "Free standing solar panels," Solar PV tech, [Online]. Available:
http://www.solarpvtech.com/solar-pv-systems/ [Accessed 4th
May 2016].
[10] "Building Integrated Photovoltaics," WBDG, [Online]. Available:
https://www.wbdg.org/ [Accessed 3rd May 2016].
[11] M. Green, Solar cells. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1982.
[12] T. Hwang, S. Kang and J. Kim, "Optimization of the building
integrated photovoltaic system in office buildings—Focus on the
orientation, inclined angle and installed area", Energy and
Buildings, vol. 46, pp. 92-104, 2012.
[13] T. Kamins, "Electrical Properties of Polycrystalline-Silicon Thin
Films for VLSI", MRS Proc., vol. 71, 1986.
[14] K. Saraswat, "Physical and Electrical Properties of Polycrystalline
Silicon Thin Films", MRS Proc., vol. 5, 1981.
[15] G. Pearson and J. Bardeen, "Electrical Properties of Pure Silicon
and Silicon Alloys Containing Boron and Phosphorus", Phys. Rev.,
vol. 75, no. 5, pp. 865-883, 1949.
[16] J. Nelson, The physics of solar cells. London: Imperial College
Press, 2003.
[17] C. Henry, "Limiting efficiencies of ideal single and multiple
energy gap terrestrial solar cells", J. Appl. Phys., vol. 51, no. 8, p.
4494, 1980.
[18] Dolara, F. Grimaccia, S. Leva, M. Mussetta, R. Faranda and M.
Gualdoni, "Performance Analysis of a Single-Axis Tracking PV
System", IEEE Journal of Photovoltaics, vol. 2, no. 4, pp. 524-531,
2012.
[19] Rhif, "A Position Control Review for a Photovoltaic System: Dual
Axis Sun Tracker", IETE Tech Rev, vol. 28, no. 6, p. 479, 2011.
[20] J. Mondol, Y. Yohanis and B. Norton, "The impact of array
inclination and orientation on the performance of a grid-connected
photovoltaic system", Renewable Energy, vol. 32, no. 1, pp. 118-
140, 2007.