Rural Development after Independence:

Rural development has acquired special significance in the countries of the Third World.

Since independence the Government of India has launched various programmes of ‘planned

change’ encompassing social, economic and political processes. There are two approaches

adopted by the government with regard to the patterns of development. These approaches are

(a) the ‘transformation’ approach and (b) the ‘improvement ‘approach.

The Transformation Approach:

The ‘transformation’ approach attaches importance to a radical change in the existing system

in terms of scale of operation, production techniques, and socio-legal reforms.

Implementation of land reform measures comes within the purview of this approach. So far

as the land reform measures are concerned, a large number of tenants or farmers have now

become the owners of the land that they are cultivating.

The slogan “land to the tiller” has been successfully translated into reality in most of the

States of India. The tenancy rights are more secure now. The Zamindari abolition laws have

succeeded in eliminating the intermediaries.

Tenancy legislations have been passed in most of the states to regulate rent and also to make

the rent fair and reasonable. Eviction of the tenants from the land which they have been

cultivating becomes an uphill task now.

Most of the states have enacted ceiling laws to fix the maximum amount of land that an

individual or family can possess. Needless to state that this is a step in the right direction of

achieving social justice. Attempts have been made for consolidation of holdings. So far 51.8

million hectares of land have been consolidated in the country.

The evil of absentee landlordism associated with the Indian agriculture has been removed.

Co-operative farming has been advocated to solve the problems of sub-division and

fragmentation of holdings. Through the Bhoodan movement efforts are being made to
provide the landless labourers with land. Efforts are also being made for the compilation and

updating of the land records.

The Improvement Approach:

The ‘improvement’ approach seeks to bring about agricultural development within the

existing peasant production system. It attaches importance to the programmes of rural

development such as the Community Development Programme, Panchayati Raj Institutions

and other programmes and agencies related to the process of development in rural India.

According to the Planning Commission, community development is the process of changing

the life of a community from backwardness to a new economic and social order through its

open efforts. The Community Development Programme undertaken by the government of

free India on 2nd October 1952 – the day of Gandhi Jayanti – constitutes the biggest rural

reconstruction scheme.

The programme is instrumental in raising the standard of living of the ruralites and in

reconstructing the rural India. Prof. Carl Taylor rightly observes that the programme signifies

active co-operation and involvement of the ruralites in formulating and executing their own

plans and programmes.

The programme has attained considerable success in the field of agriculture, education,

employment, health services, communication, vocational training, supply of drinking

water, social welfare. With the passage of time the Community Development Programme

has started losing its importance. It has suffered from several draw backs.

Various factors such as lack of clearly defined priorities, cornering of the benefits by the rich

and big farmers, a dismal lack of coordination among different development departments,

lack of commitment, administrative inefficiency and corruption at the bureaucratic level etc.

contribute to the failure of the programme. Despite these shortcomings, the CDP has

contributed a lot in arousing the consciousness and awareness of the ruralites about the

modern means of agriculture.

The Community Development Programme was launched with a view to obtaining people’s

participation in the development process. But this objective of the CDP was not materialised.

To ensure the involvement of the people in the development of villages, the Government of

India appointed a committee headed by Balwant Rai Mehta in January 1957. Consequent

upon the recommendation of the committee, the Panchayati Raj through the organization of

Gram Panchayat, Panchayat Samiti and Zilla Parishad received special attention of the

committee.

Panchayati Raj has been viewed as an attempt to implement the process of democratic

decentralization. This has broken the long standing practice of centralised authority. The

system has made an average citizen more conscious of his rights than before. He has become

a significant determinant of Indian politics today.

So far as the administrative implication of the Panchayati Raj system is concerned, it has

bridged the gulf between the bureaucratic elite and the people. Socially the Panchayati Raj

system has generated a new leadership having a modern and pro-social outlook. Finally,

viewed from the developmental angle, the Panchayati Raj system has enabled the ruralites to

cultivate a progressive outlook.

Several reports have hinted at the lack of effectiveness of the Panchayati Raj Institutions. The

important reasons attributed to its ineffectiveness are the structural inadequacy of the

institutions, administrative inefficiency and corruption at the level of bureaucracy, absence of

conceptual clarity and lack of political will.

Despite these shortcomings, it cannot be gainsaid that the Panchayati Raj Institutions have

administered enormous economic funds and resources to accelerate the process of rural

development.

Green revolution denotes the well-marked improvement in the agricultural production in a

short period and the sustenance of a high level of agricultural production over a fairly long

period of time. But viewed from the angle of crops, green revolution has been confined
largely to wheat. Hence, it is often referred to as “wheat revolution” rather than green

revolution. The success of green revolution, for the most part, depends upon adequate

irrigation facilities.

But in the Indian context, a large proportion of the agricultural land is without irrigation

facilities. This vast area naturally falls outside the orbit of green revolution. So far as the dry

areas are concerned, the applicability of the new agricultural strategy is simply out of

question. Furthermore, the adoption of new technology is confined only to some developed

areas like Punjab, Haryana and Western Uttar Pradesh.

The states of the Eastern region covering West Bengal, Bihar and Orissa have not been

benefitted by such HYV technology. The other parts of the country have remained untouched

by the new agricultural strategy. Some important commercial crops like sugarcane, oil seeds

and pulses have not been covered by the new technology. Only the large farmers and

landlords have been immensely benefitted by adopting green revolution.

There is hardly any appreciable development in the economic condition of the small and

marginal farmers as they have no capacity to adopt NAT. Despite these limitations, it cannot

be gainsaid that green revolution has brought in its wake some beneficial effects for the

Indian agricultural setting.

Increase in agricultural production, decline in import of food-grains generation of more

employment opportunities in the agricultural and non-agricultural sector, expansion of agro-

based industries, increased standard of living of the farmers constitute the positive aspects of

green revolution. Several poverty alleviation programmes have been launched by the central

government for the rural poor, comprising small and marginal farmers, landless labourers and

rural artisans. They are as follows:

1. IRDP:

The Integrated Rural Development Programme signifies a programme for improving the

living standards of the poorest of the poor living in rural areas and for making the process of
rural development self-sustaining. Initiated in 1978-79, the programme was extended to all

development blocks in the country in 1980-81.

It is based on “the local needs, resources endowments and potentialities.” Its objective is to

enable selected families to cross the poverty line by taking up self-employment ventures in a

variety of activities like agriculture, horticulture and animal husbandry in the primary sector,

weaving and handicrafts in the secondary sector, and service and business activities in the

tertiary sector.

IRDP employs the cluster approach to select villages for implementing various components

of the programme, the antyodaya approach to select beneficiaries within the selected villages,

and the package approach to assist the selected beneficiaries. The cluster approach ensures

that the supporting infrastructure is either already available in the selected villages, or can be

made available at a relatively low cost.

The antyodaya approach makes sure that the poorest of the poor are selected first, and the

package approach assures the beneficiary full benefits from the complementarity between

various inputs and services. In this way, IRDP strategy represents a synthesis of the various

approaches tested and found effective in India’s rural development programmes.

The central and state government provides financial resources for the programme and lay

down broad guidelines for its implementation. However, the main administrative unit of its

implementation is the District Rural Development Agencies (DRDAs). At the Block level a

number of extension officers are provided for programme implementation.

IRDP has some drawbacks. They are cumbersome procedure involved in availing of this

facility, widespread corruption, and lack of integration with development needs. Despite

these drawbacks it cannot be denied that the Integrated Rural Development Programme has

attained considerable success in terms of the number of beneficiaries covered and the amount

of subsidies and loans disbursed.

2. NREP:

National Rural Employment Programme was launched in October, 1980 as a centrally

sponsored scheme on 50:50 sharing basis between centre and states. Generating additional

gainful employment opportunities, creating durable community assets and improving the

overall quality of life in rural areas constitute the three -fold objectives of the programme.

The programme is implemented through DRDA. It has been merged with the Jawahar Rozgar

Yojna from April, 1989.

3. TRYSEM:

The scheme of Training Rural Youth for Self- Employment was initiated in August, 1979,

with the primary objective of providing technical skills to the rural youth to enable them to

seek employment in fields of agriculture, industry, services and business activities.

Only youth in the age group of 18 – 35 and belonging to families living below the poverty

line are eligible for training. Priority is given to persons belonging to SCs and STs, ex-

servicemen and women. The effectiveness of the scheme is affected by several factors such

as inadequate coverage, low level of skill, inadequate stipend given to the youth etc.

4. RLEGP:

Rural Landless Employment Guarantee Programme was launched on 15th August, 1983 to

generate additional employment in rural areas particularly for the rural landless workers.

Under this scheme employment is given to at least one member of every landless family upto

100 days in a year. So far as this programme is concerned, preference in the employment is

given to the landless labourers, women, SCs and STs.

Financed exclusively by the Central Government, the programme undertakes several

activities such as construction of wells, roads, houses, social forestry etc. Several factors like

absence of systematic selection of workers, failure to guarantee minimum of 100 days of

employment to workers and malpractice by the contractors stand in the way of the successful
functioning of this programme. Like NREP this programme has now been merged into the

JRY.

5. JRY:

Jawahar Rozgar Yojna was launched in April, 1989. It is pre-eminently a wage employment

programme. Under the scheme, it is expected that at least one member of each poor family

would be provided with employment for 50 to 100 days in a year at a work place near his /

her residence. About 30 per cent of the jobs under this scheme are reserved for women. The

scheme is implemented through Village Panchayats. It covers 46 per cent of our population.

So far as the impact of JRY is concerned, Ruddar Datt and K.P.M. Sundharam rightly opine,

“The overall impact of the JRY in generating employment has been much below the target

laid down. JRY has helped the weaker sections to acquire a house or provided access to

drinking water or improve sanitation, but yet much remains to be done to make a perceptible

improvement in the quality of life. Obviously, this necessitates larger devolution of resources

– both financial and human.” At present Jawahar Rozgar Yojana is not in operation.

6. JGSY:

The Jawahar Gram Samriddhi Yojana is the restructured form of Jawahar Rozgar Yojna. This

scheme is in operation from 1999. It is implemented only at the village level to create village

infrastructure and generates employment opportunities to alleviate poverty. The cost of this

programme is shared between the centre and the states in the ratio of 75: 25.

7. Antyodaya Programme:

Antyodaya means the welfare of a person standing at the end of the queue. In other words,

the programme is oriented to uplift the poorest of the poor in the countryside. The scheme

was introduced during the regime of Janata Government in 1978. So far as the operation of

this programme is concerned, every year five poorest families of every village are identified

and selected. Efforts are made for the economic betterment of these families.

8. DPAP:
The Drought-Prone Area Programme was launched at the time of the mid-term appraisal of

the Fourth Five Year Plan for drought prone areas. Reducing the severity of the impact of

drought, stabilising the income of the weaker sections of the rural community and restoring

the ecological balance constitute the basic objectives of the programme.

During the Fourth Plan, DPAP was purely a central sector scheme with 100 per cent financial

assistance from the centre. From the Fifth Plan onwards, this scheme has been operating with

funds being shared between the centre and the states on a 50: 50 ratio. As of 1996 – 97, the

programme was in operation in 947 blocks of 155 districts in 13 states.

9. DDP:

The Desert Development Programme was launched in 1977 – 78 on the recommendation of

the National Commission on Agriculture in the hot desert areas of Rajasthan, Haryana and

Gujarat, and the cold desert areas of Jammu and Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh. It was a

central sector scheme with cent per cent financing by the centre.

However, with effect from 1979-80, it has been operating as a central sector scheme with

funds being shared between the centre and the states on a 50: 50 ratio. As of 1996- 97, the

programme was in operation in 227 blocks of 36 districts in seven states.

10. FFWP:

The Food for Work Programme was launched in April, 1977. It aimed at making wage

payment in food grains at subsidised prices to the ruralites living below the poverty line.

FFWP was implemented by the development administration, without any help from labour

contractors. Huge buffer stock of food grains at the disposal of the government prompted it to

start this scheme. FFWP continued till 1980.

11. DWCRA:

The scheme of Development of Women and Children in Rural Areas was introduced in 50

districts in 1982-83. The major thrust of DWCRA is to improve the socio-economic status of
rural women through the creation of income-generating activities in a district on a self-

sustaining basis.

12. EAS:

The Employment Assurance Scheme was launched in 1983 and expanded in phases to cover

the whole country in 1996. It aims at providing 100 days of employment to two members of a

rural family in a year. The secondary objective is the creation of economic infrastructure and

community assets for sustained production and employment generation. The expenditure

under EAS is shared between the centre and the states on an 80: 20 basis.

13. SGSY:

The Swarnajayanti Gram Swarozgar Yojana was launched in April 1999 replacing earlier

programmes like the IRDP, the TRYSEM etc. This programme is instrumental in the setting

up of a large number of industries through bank credit and subsidy. It plays an important role

in enabling the poor families to rise above the poverty line in three years.

14. PMRY:,

The Prime Minister’s Rozgar Yojana is a self- employment programme for the educated

unemployed youth. This programme has been implemented since October 2, 1993 to provide

employment opportunities to the educated unemployed youths in the country.

The minimum qualification required under the scheme is matriculation (passed or failed) or

having undergone a government sponsored technical course for a period of six months or ITI

passed. In this scheme the youth between the age of 18 and 35 belonging to families having

income less than Rs. 25,000 per annum are provided assistance.

The educated unemployed entrepreneurs are given subsidy of 15 per cent subject to a ceiling

of Rs. 75,000 each for starting small projects. They are required to bring 5 per cent of the

project cost as margin money. Each entrepreneur is eligible for a loan upto Rs. 1 lakh. A

reservation of 22.5 per cent for SC/ST and 27 per cent for Other Backward Classes has been

provided. Preference is given to women.

15. JPRGY:

The Jai Prakash Rozgar Guarantee Yojana has been launched in 2002 to provide employment

guarantee to the unemployed in the most distressed districts of the country.

16. NSAP:

The National Social Assistance Programme was conceived by the central government to

provide social assistance to poor households. The programme came into force from 15th

August 1995 and includes three schemes as its components such as National Old Age Pension

Scheme, National Family Benefit Scheme and National Maternity Benefit Scheme.

17. Rural Housing Scheme:

Indira Awas Yojana was launched by the government in 1985. Under this scheme house is

given free of cost to SC/ST families and free bonded labourers. The cost norms under IAY

have been changed from time to time. With effect from 1st August 1996, the ceiling of

assistance for house construction under IAY is Rs. 20,000 per unit in the plains, and Rs.

22,000 per unit in hilly and other difficult areas.

The scope of IAY has been extended to include non-scheduled rural poor. Under the Ninth

Five Year Plan, Samagra Awas Yojana has been launched to ensure integrated provision of

shelter, sanitation and drinking water to poor rural households.

 UNIT-2

• Though natural resources play a significant role in the development of any nation, it
cannot be said that economic development of a nation solely depends upon
availability of natural resources. There are many countries which are rich in natural
resources but still they are underdeveloped. In fact, for the economic development of
a country, optimum exploitation of natural resources is more important than their
availability. Nevertheless, importance of natural resources cannot be undermined.
Natural resources of a country influence not only economic growth but also its
economic structure. The type of resources available, their quantities, their distribution
within the different regions of a country determine, to a considerable extent, the type
and scale of industries that can be developed.

India is rich in natural resources. Some of its important resources arc discussed below.

• Land Resource

• Soil Resource

• Water Resource

• Forest Resource

Land Resources:

• Land is a natural resource which affect the level and pace of development in general
and agriculture development in particular.

• In terms of area India ranks seventh in the world with a total area of 32, 87.263 sq.
km. (32.87 crore hectare). It accounts for 2.42% of total area of the world. In absolute
terms India is really a big country. However, land man ratio is not favourable because
of the huge population size.

• Land utilisation figures are available for about 92.9% of total geographical area, that
is, for 3,287.3 lakh hectare. Forest constitutes 21.02 per cent of the total geographical
area of country. Out of a total land area of 304.2 million hectares about 170.0 million
hectares is under cultivation. Food grains have preponderance in gross cropped areas
as compared to non food grains.

• According to Agricultural Census, the area operated by large holdings (10 hectares
and above) has declined and area operated under marginal holdings (less than one
hectare) has increased. This indicates that land is being fragmented.
Forest Resources

• India’s forest cover in 2007 was 69.09 million hectare which is 21.02 per cent of the
geographical area. Of this, 8.35 million hectare is very dense forest, 31.90 million
hectare is moderately dense forest and the rest 28.84 million hectare is open forest.

• The per capita forest in India (0.5 hectare) is much less than that in the world (1.9
hectares). According to the National Policy on Forests (1988), one-third (33%) of the
country’s area should be covered by forests in order to maintain ecological balance.

Forestry in India is a significant rural industry and a major environmental resource.

• India is one of the ten most forest-rich countries of the world along with the Russian
Federation, Brazil, Canada, United States of America, China, Democratic Republic of
the Congo, Australia, Indonesia and Sudan.

• Together, India and these countries account for 67 percent of total forest area of the
world.

• India's forest cover grew at 0.22% annually over 1990-2000, and has grown at the rate
of 0.46% per year over 2000-2010.

Different types of forests

India has a diverse range of forests: from the rainforest of Kerala in the south to the alpine
pastures of Ladakh in the north, from the deserts of Rajasthan in the west to the evergreen
forests in the north-east. Climate, soil type, topography, and elevation are the main factors
that determine the type of forest. Forests are classified according to their nature and
composition, the type of climate in which they thrive, and its relationship with the
surrounding environment.

Forests can be divided into six broad types, with a number of sub types. 
        

Moist tropical Montane sub tropical

Wet evergreen Broad leaved
Semi-evergreen Pine
Moist deciduous Dry evergreen
Littoral and swamp
Dry tropical Montane temperate forests
Dry deciduous Wet
Thorn Moist
Dry
Dry evergreen
Sub alpine Alpine
 Moist
Dry

Moist tropical forests

Wet-evergreen
  
Wet evergreen forests are found in the south along the Western Ghats and the Nicobar and
Andaman Islands and all along the north-eastern region. It is characterized by tall, straight
evergreen trees that have a buttressed trunk or root on three sides like a tripod that helps to
keep a tree upright during a storm. These trees often rise to a great height before they open
out like a cauliflower. The more common trees that are found here are the jackfruit, betel nut
palm, jamun, mango, and hollock. The trees in this forest form a tier pattern: shrubs cover the
layer closer to the ground, followed by the short structured trees and then the tall variety.
Beautiful fern of various colours and different varieties of orchids grow on the trunks of the
trees.

Semi-evergreen
Semi-evergreen forests are found in the Western Ghats, Andaman and Nicobar Islands, and
the Eastern Himalayas. Such forests have a mixture of the wet evergreen trees and the moist
deciduous tress. The forest is dense and is filled with a large variety of trees of both types.

Moist-deciduous
Moist deciduous forests are found throughout India except in the western and the north-
western regions. The trees have broad trunks, are tall and have branching trunks and roots to
hold them firmly to the ground. Some of the taller trees shed their leaves in the dry season.
There is a layer of shorter trees and evergreen shrubs in the undergrowth. These forests are
dominated by sal and teak, along with mango, bamboo, and rosewood.

Littoral and swamp forests are found along the Andaman and Nicobar Islands and the delta
area of the Ganga and the Brahmaputra. It consists mainly of whistling pines, mangrove
dates, palms, and bulletwood. They have roots that consist of soft tissue so that the plant can
breathe in the water.

Dry tropical forests

Dry deciduous forests are found throughout the northern part of the country except in the
North-East. It is also found in Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, and
Tamil Nadu. The canopy of the trees does not normally exceed 25 metres. The common trees
are the sal, a variety of acacia, and bamboo.
Thorn
This type is found in areas with black soil: North, West, Central, and South India. The trees
do not grow beyond 10 metres. Spurge, caper, and cactus are typical of this region.

Dry-evergreen
Dry evergreens are found along the Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka coast. It has mainly hard-
leaved evergreen trees with fragrant flowers, along with a few deciduous trees.

  
Montane sub tropical forests

Broad-leaved forests are found in the Eastern Himalayas and the Western Ghats, along the
Silent Valley. There is a marked difference in the form of the vegetation in the two areas. In
the Silent Valley, the poonspar, cinnamon, rhododendron, and fragrant grass are predominant.
In the Eastern Himalayas, the flora has been badly affected by the shifting cultivation and
forest fires. These wet forests consist mainly of evergreen trees with a sprinkling of
deciduous here and there. There are oak, alder, chestnut, birch, and cherry trees. There are a
large variety of orchids, bamboo and creepers.

Pine 
Pine forests are found in the steep dry slopes of the Shivalik Hills, Western and Central
Himalayas, Khasi, Naga, and Manipur Hills. The trees predominantly found in these areas are
the chir, oak, rhododendron, and pine. In the lower regions sal, sandan, amla, and laburnum
are found.

Dry evergreen
Dry evergreen forests normally have a prolonged hot and dry season and a cold winter. It
generally has evergreen trees with shining leaves that have a varnished look. Some of the
more common ones are the pomegranate, olive, and oleander. These forests are found in the
Shivalik Hills and foothills of the Himalayas up to a height of 1000 metres.

Montane temperate forests

Wet
Wet montane temperate forests occur in the North and the South. In the North, it is found in
the region to the east of Nepal into Arunachal Pradesh, at a height of 1800–3000 metres,
receiving a minimum rainfall of 2000 mm. In the South, it is found in parts of the Niligiri
Hills, the higher reaches of Kerala. The forests in the northern region are denser than in the
South. This is because over time the original trees have been replaced by fast-growing
varieties such as the eucalyptus. Rhododendrons and a variety of ground flora can be found
here.

In the North, there are three layers of forests: the higher layer has mainly coniferous, the
middle layer has deciduous trees such as the oak and the lowest layer is covered by
rhododendron and champa.

Moist
This type spreads from the Western Himalayas to the Eastern Himalayas. The trees found in
the western section are broad-leaved oak, brown oak, walnut, rhododendron, etc. In the
Eastern Himalayas, the rainfall is much heavier and therefore the vegetation is also more lush
and dense. There are a large variety of broad-leaved trees, ferns, and bamboo. Coniferous
trees are also found here, some of the varieties being different from the ones found in the
South.

Dry
This type is found mainly in Lahul, Kinnaur, Sikkim, and other parts of the Himalayas. There
are predominantly coniferous trees that are not too tall, along with broad-leaved trees such as
the oak, maple, and ash. At higher elevation, fir, juniper, deodar, and chilgoza can be found.

Sub alpine

Sub alpine forests extends from Kashmir to Arunachal Pradesh between 2900 to 3500 metres.
In the Western Himalayas, the vegetation consists mainly of juniper, rhododendron, willow,
and black currant. In the eastern parts, red fir, black juniper, birch, and larch are the common
trees. Due to heavy rainfall and high humidity the timberline in this part is higher than that in
the West. Rhododendron of many species covers the hills in these parts.

Alpine

Moist
Moist alpines are found all along the Himalayas and on the higher hills near the Myanmar
border. It has a low scrub, dense evergreen forest, consisting mainly of rhododendron and
birch. Mosses and ferns cover the ground in patches. This region receives heavy snowfall.

Dry
Dry alpines are found from about 3000 metres to about 4900 metres. Dwarf plants
predominate, mainly the black juniper, the drooping juniper, honeysuckle, and willow.

Importance of Forests

Forests and biodiversity is key to all life forms. The richer the diversity of life, the greater the
opportunity for medical discoveries, economic development and adaptive responses to such
new challenges as climate change Below are some more importance of forests:

1. Watershed
Forests serve as a watershed. This is because almost all water ultimately comes from
rivers and lakes and from forest-derived water tables. Some rivers running through
forests are also kept cool and from drying out. "The Amazon is by far the largest
watershed and largest river system in the world occupying over 6 million square
kilometers. Over two-thirds of all the fresh water found on Earth is in the Amazon
Basin's rivers, streams, and tributaries." - RainTree

2. Habitat and Ecosystems- Forests serve as a home (habitat) to millions of animals.

Think of the many types of reptiles (snakes and lizards) wild animals, butterflies and
insects, birds and tree-top animals as well as all those that live in the forest streams
and rivers. 
 Animals form part of the food chain in the forests. All these different animals and
plants are called biodiversity, and the interaction with one another and with their
physical environment is what we call ecosystem. Healthy ecosystems can better
withstand and recover from a variety of disasters such asfloods and wildfires.

3. Economic benefits- Forests are of immense economic importance to us. For example,
plantation forests provide humans with timber and wood, which is exported and used
in all parts of the world. They also provide tourism income to inhabitants (people
living in or close to forests) when people visit to see the best of nature. 

4. Climate Control- Climate control and atmosphere purification is key for human
existence. Trees and soils help regulate atmospheric temperatures through a process
called evapotranspiration. This helps to stabilize the climate. Additionally, they enrich
the atmosphere by absorbing bad gases (example CO2 and other greenhouse gases)
and producing oxygen. Trees also help to remove air pollutants.

Soil Resources

• Soil is our prime natural and economic resource. Soils in India differ in composition
and structure. Soil is the upper layer of the earth composed of mixture
of minerals, organic matter, gases, liquids and a myriad of organisms that can support
plant life. It is a natural body

It performs four important functions:

(i) it is a medium for plant growth

(ii) it is a means of water storage, supply and purification;

(iii) it is a modifier of the atmosphere;

(iv) it is a habitat for organisms that take part in decomposition and creation of a
habitat for other organisms.

Different types of soil

The committee appointed by the Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR), classified
the Indian soil in the following main groups:

1. Alluvial Soils

2. Black Soils

3. Red Soils

4. Laterite Soils
5. Mountain Soils

6. Desert Soils

1. Alluvial Soil:
It is the most important type of soil found in India covering about 40 per cent of the total land
area. It is very fertile and contributes the largest share of agricultural wealth. This soil
supports nearly half of the Indian population.

The alluvial soil is found mostly in the Northern Plains, starting from Punjab in the west to
West Bengal and Assam in the east. It is also found in the deltas of the Mahanadi, Godavari,
Krishna and Kaveri rivers in the Peninsular India. The northern parts and the coastal areas of
Gujarat also have some deposits of alluvial soil.

Many rivers originate from the Himalayan Mountains and bring a large amount of sediment
with them. It is deposited in the river valleys and the flood plains. Thus, the parent material of
the alluvial soils is always of transported origin.

The fine particles of sand, silt and clay are called alluvium. The alluvial soil can be divided
into old alluvium, also called bangar, and new alluvium, called khadar. Remember, the new
alluvium can be about ten thousand years old.

i. The new alluvium is deposited in the flood plains and deltas. These areas are flooded
almost every year.

ii. The old alluvium is found on the higher side of the river valleys, i.e. about 25 metres above
the flood level.

iii. The khadar soil is sandy and light in colour, while the bhangar soil is clayey and dark.

iv. The khadar soil is more fertile than the bangar soil.

v. The alluvial soils contain adequate potash, phosphoric acid and lime.

vi. They are generally deficient in organic and nitrogenous contents.

vii. The old alluvium often contains lime nodules, known as kankar.
The fertility of the alluvial soil varies from place to place. Due to its softness and fertility,
alluvial soil is most suited to irrigation and can produce bumper crops of rice, wheat, maize,
sugar cane, tobacco, cotton, jute, oilseeds, etc.

2. Black Soil:
The black soil is locally called regur, a word derived from Telugu word ‘reguda’. It is also
called the Black Cotton Soil, as cotton is the most important crop grown in this soil.

The black soil is mostly found in the Deccan Trap, covering large areas of Maharashtra,
Gujarat and western Madhya Pradesh. It is also found in some parts of Godavari and Krishna
river valleys, covering parts of Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu.

i. The black soil has been formed thousands of years ago, due to the solidification of volcanic
lava.

ii. This soil is made up of extremely fine clayey material.

iii. The black soil is well-known for its capacity to hold moisture.

iv. This soil is rich in calcium carbonate, magnesium carbonate, potash and lime, but poor in
phosphoric content.

v. During the rainy season, black soil becomes sticky and is difficult to till as the plough gets
stuck in the mud.

vi. During the hot dry season, the surface of this soil develops cracks.

vii. These cracks help in the aeration of the soil.

viii. Actually the black soil should be tilled immediately after the first or the pre-monsoon
showers.

Generally, in the upland regions, the black soil has low fertility, while in the valleys or
lowlands; this soil is darker, deeper and very fertile. Due to high fertility and capacity to hold
moisture, black soil is widely used for producing cotton, wheat, linseed, millets, tobacco and
oilseeds. With proper irrigation facilities, this soil can also produce rice and sugar cane.

3. Red Soil:
The red soil occupies about 10 per cent area of India, mostly in the south-eastern part of the
Peninsular India. This area encircles the entire black soil region. The red soil is found in
Tamil Nadu, parts of Karnataka, southeast Maharashtra, eastern parts of Andhra Pradesh,
Madhya Pradesh, Orissa and Jharkhand.

i. Most of the red soil has been formed due to weathering of igneous and metamorphic rocks.

ii. The red colour is due to the high percentage of iron contents.

iii. The texture of the red soil varies from sandy to clayey, and the majority being loamy.

iv. On the uplands, the red soil is thin, poor, and porous and has loose gravel.

v. In the lower areas, the soil is deep, rich, fine grained and fertile.

vi. This soil is rich in potash, but poor in lime, phosphate, nitrogen and humus.

With proper doses of fertilizers and irrigation the red soils can give excellent yields of cotton,
wheat, rice, pulses, millets, tobacco, oilseeds, etc.

4. Laterite Soil:
The word ‘laterite’ has been derived from a Latin word meaning ‘brick’. The laterite soil is
widely spread in India and is mainly found on the summits of the Western Ghats, Eastern
Ghats, Rajmahal Hills, Vindhyas, Satpuras and Malwa plateau. It is well- developed in
southern Maharashtra, and parts of Orissa, West Bengal, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Kerala,
Bihar, Assam and Meghalaya.

i. The laterite soil is formed under conditions of high temperature and heavy rainfall with
alternate wet and dry periods.

ii. Such climatic conditions promote leaching of soil. Leaching is a process in which heavy
rains wash away the fertile part of the soil.

iii. The laterite soil is red in colour and composed of little clay and much gravel of red
sandstones.

iv. Laterite soil generally is poor in lime and deficient in nitrogen. The phosphate contents are
generally high.
Due to intensive leaching, the laterite soil generally lacks fertility and is of low value for crop
production. But when manured and timely irrigated, the soil is suitable for producing
plantation crops like tea, coffee, rubber, coconut, arecanut, etc. It also provides valuable
building materials.

5. Mountain Soil:
The mountain soil is generally found on the hill slopes covered with forests. In the Himalayan
region such soil is mainly found in the valley basins, the depressions and the lesser steep
slopes. The north-facing slopes generally support soil cover. Apart from the Himalayan
region, this soil is also found in the Western and Eastern Ghats and in some parts of the
Peninsular India.

i. The mountain soil is formed mainly due to the deposition of organic matter provided by the
forests.

ii. This soil is rich in humus, but poor in potash, phosphorus and lime.

iii. It is heterogeneous in nature and varies from place to place.

iv. The mountain soil is sandy with gravels and is porous.

For getting high yields of crops, heavy doses of fertilizers have to be applied. In the
Himalayan region wheat, maize, barley and temperate fruits are grown on this soil. This soil
is especially suitable for producing plantation crops, such as tea, coffee, spices and tropical
fruits in Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Kerala.

6. Desert Soil:
The desert soil is found mostly in the arid and semi-arid regions, receiving less than 50 cm of
annual rainfall. Such regions are mostly found in Rajasthan and the adjoining areas of
Haryana and Punjab. The Rann of Kachchh in Gujarat is an extension of this region.

i. The sand in the desert areas is partly of local origin and partly being blown in from the
Indus Valley.

ii. It includes even the wind-blown loess.

iii. The desert soil has sand (90 to 95 per cent) and clay (5 to 10 per cent).
iv. In some regions this soil has high percentage of soluble salts, but lacks in organic matter.

v. The nitrogen content is low, but the phosphate content is as high as in normal alluvial soil.

When water is made available through irrigation, the desert soil can produce a variety of
crops, such as millets, barley, maize, pulses, cotton, etc. Shortage of water in the arid regions
is the main limiting factor for agriculture.

Principles for Soil Conservation

1. Keep the surface covered

2. Soil function improves with carbon

3. Surface residue protects

4. Value the importance of crops in rotation

5. Agro forestry improves diversity

6. Precision conservation targets for effectiveness

7. Value water appropriately

8. Improve crop diversity

Soil erosion removes the topsoil which contains precious nutrients, organic matter, and
micro-organisms essential to the viability of arable land. Taking steps to preserve soil is an
important part of following an environmentally responsible lifestyle.

The task in finding ways to stop soil erosion becomes one of finding ways to conserve soil.
There are several methods of soil conservation that can be achieved through agricultural
practices and measures you take at home.

Agriculture Soil Conservation

1. Practice no till farming. With no till farming, crops are allowed to remain rather than
being ploughed under at the end of the season. This practice keeps soils anchored in place
rather than having bare ground exposed to wind and water.
2. Use terrace farming. This type of farming uses the topography of the land to slow water
flow through a series of terraces. This manipulation of the water flow prevents it from
gathering speed and washing soil away from farmlands.

3. Practice contour farming. Contour farming replicates the effects of terrace farming, but
on a smaller scale. Rather than planting crops in straight vertical rows, crops are planted
following the contour of the landscape. Crops planted up and down hillsides create pathways
for water to flow. Crops planted parallel to the land slow the flow of water that prevents soil
erosion.

4. Reduce impervious surfaces. Impervious surfaces like driveways and patios allow

precipitation to flow freely over them. Water flow gains momentum when moving over such
surfaces and can then erode stream banks and lakeshores. A good compromise is to use
paving stones rather than a concrete slab for your patio to allow the water to percolate down
into the soil.

5. Plant a rain garden. A rain garden is a shallow depression in your yard, which will collect
precipitation washing over impervious surfaces. It prevents soil erosion and gives you an
opportunity to grow wetland plants.

6. Use a rain barrel. You can place a rain barrel underneath a downspout to collect the water
that runs off of your roof. Your roof, after all, is another impervious surface. You can use the
water you collect for your lawn and garden. In this way, you can conserve water and soil.

7. Plant windbreaks. Windbreaks prevent soil erosion by slowing the force of the wind over
open ground. You can plant trees or shrubs in your windbreak. In addition to preventing
erosion, these plantings will prevent snow from drifting onto your driveway or into the road.
They can also protect your home from wind damage.

8. Restore wetlands. Wetlands are one of the most effective ways to prevent soil erosion.
Wetlands act as natural sponges, absorbing rainwater and preventing it from carrying the soil
away. They also provide a habitat for birds and other wildlife and help prevent water
pollution.

9. Plant buffer strips along stream banks. Buffer strips help hold stream banks intact
during times of flooding. They also prevent runoff from entering waterways. Buffer strips can
include a mixture of grasses, shrubs, and trees.

10. Re-establish forest cover. The re-establishment of forest cover provides an extensive,

tree-root network that offers a long-term solution to soil erosion. It can function both as a
windbreak and a means to anchor soils in place.
Weather, climate and water information contributes to the safety and welfare of the public
and has the potential to provide immense social and economic benefits to society. India has
three major seasons - winter - summer and the monsoon.

Winter months (November-March) are bright and pleasant, with snowfall in the northern
hills.

Summer time (April-June) is hot in most parts of India, and it is then that the numerous hill
resorts provide cool retreat.

During the monsoon, rainfall is heavy along the west coast between June and September,
and along the east coast between mid-October and December.

Overview of Production System in India

• Agriculture (practice of farming, including cultivation of the soil for the growing of
crops and the rearing of animals to provide food, wool, and other products).

• Horticulture (Garden management)

• Seri-culture (Silk farming)

• Forestry (the science or practice of planting, managing, and caring for forests).

• Animal husbandry and dairy (breeding and caring for farm animals)

• Non farm activities

Agriculture Sector is changing the socio-economic environments of the population due

to liberalization and globalization

• About 68% people are living in rural areas and 60% are still dependent on
Agriculture. About 43% of India’s geographical area is used for agricultural activity

• Agriculture continues to play a major role in Indian Economy

• Provides about 60% of the livelihood

• Accounts for 10-11% of GDP

• Contributes 21% of Total Exports, and Supplies Raw materials to Industries

• Growth Rate in production - 4.7%

Total Area Seventh

Irrigated Area First

Population Second

Economically Active population Second

Total Cereals Third

Wheat Second

Rice Second

Coarse grains Fourth

Total Pulses First

Oil Seeds Second

Fruits and Vegetables Second

Implements (Tractors) Third

Milk First

Live Stock First

 Total Geographical Area (TGA) - 329 M.H

 Potential for Biological Production - 265 M.H

 Net Sown Area (NSA) - 143 M.H

 Net Irrigated Area - 56 M.H

  Area threatened by land degradation - 50% of T GA

 Drought-prone Area - 190 M.H

Mile Stones in Agricultural Development

• Green Revolution (wheat)

• Blue Revolution (water, fish)

• White Revolution (Milk)

• Yellow Revolution (flower, edible)

• ICT Revolution

Development of Indian Agriculture:

Since the dawn of independence, several steps have been taken to develop the agricultural sector
of the country. The major break through has been achieved in food grains production.

The production of food grains which was 550 lakh tonnes in 1950 substantially moved to 1991
lakh tonnes in 1995. However, the various measures employed from time to time can be
discussed as: The various technical measures employed to develop agriculture are as under:

1. Multiple Cropping:

Multiple cropping aims at maximizing production per unit of land and per unit of time by taking
three or four crops in a year. By adopting multiple cropping, there are two advantages as of
getting increased returns and economy of the farm resources.

2. Expansion of Irrigation Facilities:

Irrigation facilities have increased manifold over time. Several, minor, medium and major
irrigation projects have been launched in the country. At the inception of First Five Year Plan,
India had only 18% of total irrigated area which at present increased to about 33.9 percent.

Moreover, dry farming has also been introduced in those areas where means of permanent
irrigation cannot be installed. In 1994-95 the country witnessed total irrigated area of 876 lakh
hectares.

3. Use of HYV Seeds:

HYV seeds have absolutely revolutionized Indian agriculture by increasing yield per acre. Among
these, mention may be made of dwarf varieties of wheat PU-18, Kalyan Sona 227, Sona Lika,
Hybrid maize, Vijay, Rice I R-8, Jhona 351, Padma and Jaya etc.

4. Plant Protection:

Considerable efforts have been made to protect the crops from the insects and pests. For this
purpose, 14 Central Plant Protection Centres have been set up by the Govt.

5. Scientific Methods of Cultivation:

In the planning period, stress has been laid on the scientific methods of cultivation. It has been
emphasized to adopt superior agricultural technology in respect of crop rotation, selection of
quality seeds, use of proper manure, treatment of soil, selection of crops etc.

In this regard, Govt has initiated Intensive Agricultural Area Programme. Moreover, several
Agricultural research centers and universities have also been established.

In this regard, Haryana Agricultural University Hissar, Punjab Agricultural University Ludhiana,
Himachal Agricultural University Palampur, ICAR, Delhi is playing a pioneer role to develop
agriculture.

6. Use of Mechanization:

Mechanization is another noteworthy step employed to develop agriculture. Small farmers are
assisted with cheap credit facilities through co-operative societies, community development
blocks to purchase machinery and other modern equipments.

7. More Use of Chemical Fertilizers:

Use of chemical fertilizers has also contributed significantly to the growth of agricultural output.
Several steps have been taken to encourage the use of cow-dung as manure rather than as fuel.

In 1950-51, 0.13 million tonnes of chemical fertilizers was used which in 1980-81 increased to
5.52 million tonnes and further to 12.54 million tonnes in 1990-91. In 1995-96, the use of
chemical fertilizers was recorded to the tune of 15.7 million tonnes.

8. Development of Agricultural Land:

Efforts have been made to develop agricultural land during the five year plans. Major success has
been achieved in the leveling of land, terracing of fields and contour building. Land surveys are
also being conducted.

9. Animal Husbandry:

Animal husbandry has assumed a much broader role in the overall agricultural development.
Presently, this sector accounts for 25% of gross value of agricultural output. India's vast livestock
population offers tremendous potential for meeting domestic demand for milk, egg, meat, wool,
etc.
10. Land Reforms:

In a bid to increase agricultural productivity, land reforms are of immense use. Since the dawn of
independence, Govt, of India has undertaken several land reform measures. For instance,
Abolition of zamidari system, Fixation of ceilings on Land Holdings, Consolidation of Land
Holdings, co-operative farming etc.

Efforts on Policies, strategies and Frameworks

• National Agriculture Policy (2000)

• National Seeds policy (2002)

• Cooperative Policy

• Agricultural Price policy

• Agricultural Extension Framework (2001)

• WTO/GATT agreement (1994)

Horticulture is the branch of agriculture that deals with the art, science, technology,

and business of plant  cultivation.

• It includes the cultivation of fruits,

vegetables, nuts, seeds, herbs, sprouts, mushrooms, algae, flowers, seaweeds and non-
food crops such as grass and ornamental trees and plants.

• It also includes plant conservation, landscape restoration, landscape and garden

design, construction, and maintenance.

• India is endowed with a remarkably heterogeneous area characterized by a great

diversity of agro climatic zones, allowing for production of a variety of horticultural
crops such as fruits, vegetables, flowers, spices, plantation crops, root and tuber crops,
and medicinal and aromatic crops.

• India is the second largest producer of fruits and vegetables in the world.

• Horticulture exports has helped the country to earn Rs 14,000 crore in 2011-12.

• Horticulture accounts for 30% of India’s agricultural GDP

 • India’s major exports include onion, mango pulp, fresh mangoes, dried walnuts, fresh
grapes.

• India’s biggest export markets are South Asian & Middle east Countries.

• India’s share in the global market is insignificant – it accounts for 1.7% of the global
trade in vegetables and 0.5% in fruits

National Horticulture Board

• National Horticulture Board (NHB) was set up by the Government of India in 1984 as
an autonomous society under the Societies Registration Act 1860.

• Board has its Head Quarter in Institutional Area, Sector 18, Gurgaon (Haryana).

• The Managing Director is the Principal Executive of NHB who implements various
schemes under overall supervision and guidance of the Board of Directors of NHB as
well as the Department of Agriculture & Co-operation, Ministry of Agriculture, Govt.
of India..

Objectives of National Horticulture Board

1. Development of hi-tech commercial horticulture

2:-Development of modern post-harvest management infrastructure as integral part of area

expansion projects

3:-Development of integrated, energy efficient cold chain infrastructure

4:-Popularization of identified new technologies for commercialization

5:-Assistance in securing availability of quality planting material

6:-Promotion and market development of fresh horticulture produce,

7:-Promotion of field trials of newly developed/ imported planting materials and other farm
inputs, production technology, PHM protocols, INM and IPM protocols, and applied R&D
programmes for commercialization of proven technology.
 8. Promotion of  applied R & D for standardizing

9:-Transfer of technology to producers/farmers and service providers such as gardeners, farm

level skilled workers, operators in cold storages

10:-Promotion of consumption of horticulture produce and products.

11:-Setting up Common Facility Centers in Horticulture Parks and Agri-Export Zones.

12:-Strengthen market intelligence system by developing, collecting and disseminating

horticulture database,

13:-Carrying out studies and surveys to identify constraints and develop short and long term
strategies for systematic development of horticulture

Seri-culture

• Seri-culture, or silk farming, is the rearing of silkworms for the production of silk.

• Sericulture has become one of the most important cottage industries in a number of

countries like China, Japan, India, Korea, Brazil, Russia, Italy and France.
Today, China and India are the two main producers, together manufacturing more
than 60% of the world production each year. Silk is a high value but low volume
product accounting for only 0.2 % of world's total textile production.

• Geographically, Asia is the main producer of silk in the world and produces over 95
% of the total global output.

• Though there are over 40 countries on the world map of silk, bulk of it is produced in
China and India, followed by Japan, Brazil and Korea. China is the leading supplier of
silk to the world.

• The Central Silk Board (CSB) is a Statutory Body,

established during 1948, by an Act of Parliament.
• It functions under the administrative control of the Ministry of Textiles, Government
of India.  Central Silk Board Head Quarter functioning from Banglore.

Functions of Central Silk Board (CSB)

• Promoting the development of Silk Industry by such measures as it thinks fit.

• To create greater opportunities for gainful employment and improved levels of

income in sericulture through spread of scientific sericulture practices

• Undertaking, assisting or encouraging scientific, technological and economic

research.

• Devising means for improved methods of mulberry cultivation, silkworm

rearing ,developing and distribution of healthy silkworm seeds,

• Improving the marketing of raw silk.

• The collection of statistics.

• See India emerge as the leader in the world market for silk.

• To advise the Central Government on all matters relating to the development of silk
industry including import and export of raw silk.

• To prepare and furnish such other reports relating to the silk industry as may be
required by the Central Government from time to time.

Significance of Seri culture

High employment potential- 60 lakh persons are engaged in various sericulture

activities in the country

(2) Provides vibrancy to village economies- About 57 % of the gross value of silk
fabrics flows back to the cocoon growers.

(3) Women friendly Occupation- Women constitute over 60 % of those employed in

down-stream activities of sericulture in the country. 
 (4) Ideal Programme for Weaker Sections of the Society- Sericulture can be practiced
even with very low land holding.

(5) Eco-friendly Activity- As a continuing crop with good foliage and root-spread,
mulberry contributes to soil conservation and provides green cover.

(6) Satisfies Equity Concerns- Benefits of sectoral value-addition primarily accrue to

rural households. As the end-product users are mostly from the higher economic groups,
the money flows from high end groups to low end groups.

Dairying in India

• In India, dairying is recognized as an instrument for social and economic

development. The nation's milk supply comes from millions of small producers,
dispersed throughout the rural areas. These farmers maintain an average herd of one
or two milch animals, comprising cows and/or buffaloes. The animals' nutritional
requirements are largely met by agricultural waste and by products . Ample labour
and a small land base encourage farmers to practice dairying as an occupation
subsidiary to agriculture. While income from crop production is seasonal, dairying
provides a stable, year-round income, which is an important economic incentive for
the small farmer to take to dairying.

Size of the Industry
Geographical distribution
More than 10 million dairy farmers belong to 96,000 local
dairy cooperatives, who sell their product to one of 170 milk
producers' cooperative unions who in turn are supported by 15
state cooperative
Delhi, Punjab, Mumbai, Gujarat, Surat, Lucknow, Bihar,
Hyderabad

Output per annum Growing 5 % per annum

Market Capitalization The industry contributes about Rs 1,15,970 crores (US $

25,771 million)  to the national economy.

India is the highest milk producer in the entire globe. India is well known as the 'Oyster'
of the global dairy industry, with opportunities galore for the entrepreneurs globally. It
might be dream for any nation in the world to capitalize on the largest and fastest growing
milk and mil products' market. The dairy industry in India has been witnessing rapid
growth with liberalization. As the economy provides good opportunities for MNCs and
foreign investors to release the full potential of this industry. The main objective of the
Indian Dairy Industry is to manage the national resources in a manner to enhance milk
production and upgrade milk processing using innovative technologies.

India had tremendous milk production in 40 years and has become the world's largest
milk-producing nation with a gross output of 84.6 million tons in 2001. The Indian Dairy
Industry has achieved this strength of a producer-owned and professionally-managed
cooperative system, despite the facts that a majority of dairy farmers are illiterate and run
small, marginal operations and for many farmers, selling milk is their sole source of
income. More than 10 million dairy farmers belong to 96,000 local dairy cooperatives,
who sell their products to one of 170 milk producers' cooperative unions who in turn are
supported by 15 state cooperative milk marketing federations.

In India dairy business has been practiced as rural cottage industry over the years. Semi-
commercial dairy started with the establishment of military dairy farms and co-operative
milk unions throughout the country towards the end of the 19th century. Since
Independence this Industry has made rapid progress. A large number of modern milk and
milk product factories have since been established. The organized dairies in India have
been successfully engaged in the routine commercial production of pasteurized bottled
milk for Indian dairy products.

The growth of Indian Dairy Industry during the last three decades has been impressive, at
more than 5% per annum; and in the 90's the country has emerged as the largest producer
of milk. This is not a small achievement when we consider the fact that dairying in India
is largely stringent that farmers in general keep dairy animals in proportion to their free
crop and also are available for family labor with little or no purchased inputs and a
minimum of marketed outputs. The existence of restrictive trade policy milk in the Diary
Industry and the emergence of Amul type cooperatives have changed the dairy farming
practices in the country. Farmers have gained the favorable price for their milk and for
their production which was essentially a self-reliant one is which is now being
transformed into a commercial proposition.

In India Milk production is dominated by small and marginal land-holding farmers and
also by landless labourers who in aggregate own 70% of the national milch animal herd.
And as the crop production on 78% of the agricultural land still depends on rain, which is
prone to both drought and floods, rendering agricultural income is very much uncertain
for most of the farmers. Dairying, as a subsidiary source of income and occupation, is real
relief to most of the farmers in the society. Usually one or two milch animals enable the
farmers to generate sufficient income to break the vicious subsistence agricultural-debt
cycle.

Total contribution to the economy/ sales

The Indian Dairy Industry engages in the production and processing of milk & cream.
This industry is involved in the manufacture of various dairy products like cheese, curd,
yoghurt etc. The Indian Dairy Industry specializes in the procurement, production,
processing, storage and distribution of dairy products. India as nation stands first in its
share of dairy production in the international scenario. The industry contributes about Rs
1,15,970 to the national economy.

Employment opportunities

The Indian Diary industry which is in the developing stage provides gainful employment
to a vast majority of the rural households. It employs about 8.47 million people on yearly
basis out of which 71% are women.

Jobs in Indian dairy industry are mainly in the fields of production and processing of
dairy products. An individual with minimum of 60% marks who has bachelor's degree
course in the dairy technology can easily be availing an opportunity to work in this
industry. For the graduation course in Dairy technology one has to qualify the All India
Entrance Test that is affiliated to the Indian Council of Agricultural Research. After that
the person can continue with his masters in dairy technology. Jobs would be for the
following positions.

Dairy Scientists: The main job of the dairy scientists is to deal with collection of milk
and taking care of the high yielding variety of animals.

Dairy Technologists: the work of Dairy technology requires procurement officers who
take the responsibility of collecting milk from farmers, milk booths ad cattle-rearers. This
particular procurement officer should well understand the latest technology that is
applicable in maintaining the quality of milk of the process of transporting it to the
desired location.
Dairy Engineers: dairy engineers are usually appointed is to set up and maintain dairy
plants.

Marketing Personnel: These individuals deal with the sale and marketing of milk
together with milk products.

Operation flood

• The strategy for organized dairy development in India was actually conceived in the
late 1960s, within a few years after the National Dairy Development Board (NDDB)
was founded in 1965. It rested on the Operation Flood programme, which was
conceived by the NDDB and endorsed by the government.

• Operation Flood is a unique approach to dairy development. During the 1970s, dairy
commodity surpluses were building up in Europe, and Dr Verghese Kurien, the
founding chairman of NDDB, saw in those surpluses both a threat and an opportunity.
The threat was massive exports of low-cost dairy products to India, which, had it
occurred, would have tolled the death-knell for India's staggering dairy industry. The
large quantities that India was already importing had eroded domestic markets to the
point where dairying was not viable.

• The opportunity, on the other hand, was built into the Operation Flood strategy.
Designed basically as a marketing project, Operation Flood recognized the potential
of the European surpluses as an investment in the modernization of India's dairy
industry. With the assistance of the World Food Programme, food aid - in the form of
milk powder and butter oil - was obtained from the countries of the European
Economic Community (EEC) to finance the programme. It was the first time in the
history of economic development that food aid was seen as an important investment
resource. Use of food aid in this way is anti-inflationary, it provides a buffer stock to
stabilize market fluctuations and it can be used to prime the pump of markets that will
later be supplied by domestic production. The overriding objective of all aid is, or
rather should be, the elimination of the need for aid. The use of food aid as an
investment is the most effective way of achieving this objective.

• Operation Flood is a programme designed to develop dairying by replicating the

Anand Model for dairy development, which has stood the test of time for almost half
a century. The first phase of Operation Flood was launched in 1970 following an
 agreement with the World Food Programme, which undertook to provide as aid
126000 tonnes of skim milk powder and 42000 tonnes of butter oil to finance the
programme.

• The programme involved organizing dairy cooperatives at the village level; creating
the physical and institutional infrastructure for milk procurement, processing,
marketing and production enhancement services at the union level; and establishing
dairies in India's major metropolitan centres. The main thrust was to set up dairy
cooperatives in India's best milksheds, linking them with the four main cities of
Bombay, Calcutta, Delhi and Madras, in which a commanding share of the milk
market was to be captured. In achieving that goal, the first phase of Operation Flood
laid the foundation for India's modern dairy industry, an industry that would
ultimately meet the country's need for milk and milk products.

Amul and the evolution of the Anand model

• Milk procurement from the rural areas and its marketing in the urban areas was the
major problem in Indian dairying at the time India gained independence. In one of the
earliest urban milk supply schemes, Polsons - a private dairy at Anand - procured
milk from milk producers through middlemen, processed it and then sent the milk to
Bombay, some 425 km away. Bombay was a good market for milk and Polsons
profited immensely. In the mid-1940s, when the milk producers in Kaira asked for a
proportionate share of the trade margins, they were denied even a modest increase.
The milk producers went on strike, refusing to supply milk to Polsons. On the advice
of Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel, a leader in India's independence movement, the milk
producers registered the Kaira District Cooperative Milk Producers' Union, now
popularly known as AMUL, in 1946. The Kaira union procured milk from affiliated
village-level milk societies. This was the genesis of organized milk marketing in
India, a pioneering effort that opened a new vista for dairy development in the
country . AMUL formed the basis for the Anand Model of dairying. The basic unit in this
model is the milk producers' cooperative society at the village level. These cooperatives are
organizations of milk producers who wish to market their milk collectively. Membership is
open to all who need the cooperative's services and who are willing to accept the
responsibilities of being a member. Decisions are taken on the basis of one member
exercising one vote. No privilege accrues to capital, and the economic returns, whether
profit or loss, are divided among the members in proportion to patronage. Each cooperative
 is expected to carry out the continuing education of its members, elected leaders and
employees. All the milk cooperatives in a district form a union that, ideally, has its own
processing facilities.

• All the unions in a state are normally members of a federation whose prime
responsibility is the marketing of milk and milk products outside the state. There is
also a fourth tier, the National Cooperative Dairy Federation of India (NCDFI), which
is a national-level body that formulates policies and programmes designed to
safeguard the interests of all milk producers. Each tier of the Anand organizational
structure performs a unique function: procurement and services by the cooperative;
processing by the union; marketing by the state federation; and advancing the interests
of the cooperative dairy industry by the national federation. Thus, the Anand Model
has evolved into an integrated approach to systematic dairy development.

Challenges to Dairying in India

• Low milk yield of cattle

• Limited use of farm management techniques

•  Only 15% of milk processed in the organised sector

• Wastage is high

• Distribution constraints Climatic conditions

• Poor refrigerated storage facilities

•  High bacterial count of milk

• Parallel economy thriving on adulterated milk

Animal husbandry 
Animal husbandry is the management and care of farm animals by humans for profit, in
which genetic qualities and behaviour, considered to be advantageous to humans, are
further developed. The term can refer to the practice of selectively breeding and raising
livestock to promote desirable traits in animals for utility, sport, pleasure, or research.

• Animal husbandry is one of the most important occupations for farmers in India.
Livestock, meat, eggs, milk, hides etc are the major products for the farmers. Farms,
farm animals, and farmers makeup a fine farming eco-system in India. To farmers,
livestock are not just mere animals; often they treat them as their companions. This is
peculiarly true of cattle and buffaloes. Ox, buffaloes and camels are used as animal on
the farm. They help in ploughing, sowing and carrying farm products. Cows and she-
buffaloes furnish milk. Animal excreta are used as farm manures. Animal husbandry
and dairy development play a significant role in rural development. Thus in the rural
economy, animal husbandry plays a significant role. India occupies the third position
in global production of eggs and the sixth position in global production of poultry
meat. 

• India has vast resources of livestock and poultry, which play a vital role in improving
the socio-economic conditions of the rural masses.

• India ranks first in respect of buffalo,

• Second in cattle & goats,

• Third in sheep,

• Fourth in ducks,

• Fifth in chickens

• Sixth in Camel population in the world.

India has 57% of the world’s buffalo population.

• Cattles are an asset to small and minor farmers, who supplement their farm revenue
through the milk they generate. The Indian cattle species are known for their
toughness and immunity towards tropical diseases. They are therefore in great
demand, internationally. Extra endeavours are being taken to improve cattle breed,
primarily for yielding more milk. Embryo transfer technology is now being applied in
an extensive way. Artificial insemination centres have been established all over the
country. With 205 million cattle India alone accounts for 1/6th of the world's total
cattle population. And 84 million buffaloes in India constitute 55% of the world's total
number of buffaloes, Milk production was 17 million tonnes in 1950. It had risen to
143million tonnes by July 2014. Uttar Pradesh stands as the leader in cattle rearing,
and is toed closely by Madhya Pradesh. The states
of Bihar, Maharashtra,Rajasthan and Andhra Pradesh line up closely, in that order.
But the choicest bulls and buffaloes are
from Punjab, Haryana, Gujarat,Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh.

Sheep
However, India's share in the world is among the lowest-a mere 4%. Indian sheep
yields somewhat inferior quality wool and their production is also low. It comes to
less than one kilogram per head. The total production of wool was 44,000 tonnes.
Over 20,000 choicest merino sheep for excellent wool have been imported to improve
the types of Indian sheep. Sheep of crude quality wool are reared in Andhra
Pradesh and Tamil Nadu. But sheep with delicate quality wool are reared in western
Himalayas, i.e. in the states of Jammu and Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh. 

Goats 
Known as "poor man's cow", goats are more plentiful in India, particularly in Bihar,
Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh. They account for 1/6th of the world's total count. 

India's percentage of horses, ponies and mules is quite low, just 2% of the world's
total. Camels and yaks are the other domestic animals in India. 

Poultry 
Though of old interest, poultry has lately acquired respectable importance, both in
farmer's economy and in the Indian diet, both of which have stayed underprivileged
for long. Yearly production of eggs was less than two billion in 1950-51. It had risen
to 64 billion by 2014. Broiler production, virtually unknown till 1961, had risen to
200 million birds during 2014.

Pigs 
Pork is gained from 10 million pigs reared in the country. Rearing pigs has
 increasingly gained momentum in the animal husbandry sector. Generally landless
and poor farmers, uneducated and unemployed youth, and people in agricultural
livelihood farm pigs. This auxiliary profession needs little investment in infrastructure
and equipment thus resulting in profitable outcome for the farmers. 28% of the total
pig population in India is farmed in the North East. Recently numerous techniques
have been adopted to prevent deadly disease that spread from pigs like swine fever.
The pigs are vaccinated every fortnight. For taking reasonable care of the health of
livestock, considerable numbers of veterinary hospitals and dispensaries have been
established. 

Animal husbandry and dairying

• The Department of Animal Husbandry and Dairying (AH&D) - now renamed as

Department of Animal Husbandry Dairying & Fisheries (DADF) is one of the
Departments in the Ministry of Agriculture and came into existence w.e.f. 1stFebruary,
1991.

• The Department is responsible for matters relating to livestock production,

preservation, protection from disease and improvement of stocks and dairy
development, and also for matters relating to the Delhi Milk Scheme and the National
Dairy Development Board.

• It also looks after all matters pertaining to fishing and fisheries, inland and marine.

• The Department advises State Governments/Union Territories in the formulation of

policies and programmes in the field of Animal Husbandry, Dairy Development and
Fisheries.

The main thrust areas are:

• Development of requisite infrastructure in States/UTs for improving productivity,

• Preservation and protection of livestock through provision of health care,

• Strengthening of Central livestock farms (Cattle, Sheep and Poultry) for development
of superior germ plasm for distribution to states and,

• Expansion of Aquaculture in fresh & brackish water, and welfare of fisher-folk etc.
 Fishing in India 

Fishing in India is a major industry in its coastal states, employing over 14 million
people. Fish production in India has increased more than tenfold since its
independence in 1947. According to the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of
the United Nations, fish output in India doubled between 1990 and 2010. India has
8,118 kilometers of marine coastline, 3,827 fishing villages, and 1,914 traditional fish
landing centers. India's fresh water resources consist of 195,210 kilometers
of rivers and canals, 2.9 million hectares of minor and major reservoirs, 2.4 million
hectares of ponds and lakes, and about 0.8 million hectares of flood
plain wetlands and water bodies. As of 2010, the marine and freshwater resources
offered a combined sustainable catch fishing potential of over 4 million metric tonnes
of fish. In addition, India's water and natural resources offer a tenfold growth potential
in aquaculture (farm fishing) from 2010 harvest levels of 3.9 million metric tonnes of
fish, if India were to adopt fishing knowledge, regulatory reforms,
and sustainability policies adopted by China over the last two decades.

• India’s rank as the second-largest fish producer in the world is nothing to cheer about,
since it is a tenth that of the world No 1, according to a fisheries scientist.

• And no prizes for guessing which is the world’s largest producer of freshwater fish:
China.

• Prof C. Mohanakumaran Nair, Pro Vice-Chancellor of Kerala University of Fisheries

& Ocean Studies, said that in 2012, China had produced 570 lakh tonnes of fish and
marine algae, which was 63 per cent of its total aquaculture production.

• Excluding marine algae, China's production of food fish was 411.08 lakh tonnes,
while India's was 42.09 lakh tonnes, just around ten per cent, Prof Nair said.

• He pointed out that Indian aquaculture was limited to less than ten species of fish,
while China cultures over a 100 species on a commercial scale.

• Describing India as a “sleeping giant” because of its untapped fish production

potential, the scientist said, ”India's fish production has been showing a marginal
 increase every year. From 41.57 lakh tonnes in 1991-92 it has increased to 90.40 lakh
tonnes in 2012-13.

Mismanagement in Fisheries

Current key management problems include:

 Inadequate fisheries regulations: In many fisheries, current rules and regulations are
not strong enough to limit fishing capacity to a sustainable level. This is particularly the case
for the high seas, where there are few international fishing regulations. 
 
 Lack of implementation/enforcement: Even when fisheries regulations exist, they
are not always implemented or enforced. For example, many countries have still not ratified,
implemented, or enforced international regulations such as the UN Convention on the Law of
the Sea and the UN Fish Stocks Agreement. Lack of political will is also responsible for
failures to adopt bycatch reduction devices, for example.
 Lack of transparency and traceability: Customs agencies and also retailers are not
always ensuring that the fish entering their country and shops is caught legally and in a
sustainable way. As a result, consumers are unwittingly supporting poor management by
purchasing fish from unsustainable fisheries. Only when our seafood is traceable can markets
and legal systems be effective and reward sustainable practices, whilst deter the irresponsible.
 Failure to follow scientific advice: Many fisheries management bodies do not heed
scientific advice on fish quotas and set catch limits above the recommended maximum
amount; this is the case for for Atlantic cod and tuna, for example.

 Flag of Convenience vessels: Countries are either failing to restrict fishing

companies from owning and operating FoC vessels, or are not rigorously inspecting FoC
vessels landing at their ports. This include countries with some of the biggest fishing fleets
such as the EU, Japan, Korea, and Taiwan (China). This allows illegal, unreported and
unregulated (IUU) fishing to continue.
 
 Too few no-go areas for fishing: Protected areas and no-take zones, where fishing is
banned or strictly regulated, can provide essential safe havens where young fish can grow to
maturity and reproduce before they are caught. But just 1.2% of the world's oceans have been
declared as Marine Protected Areas (MPAs), and 90% of existing MPAs are open to fishing.
The current lack of protection is especially worrying for fish spawning grounds and the deep
sea, both of which are particularly vulnerable to overfishing.