Chapter One Ethics Defined Ge human person has always been the basis of the existence of the world. It is ything will come to perfection in one’s only through the human person that ever fhink has brought him to inquire about the good life his existence. It is for this individual existence. Man's capacity to t life. But in order and the means to attain such life in order to fulfili the meaning of reason that man must focus on ethics as the ground fora good and beautiful to do this, it is necessary first to provide a definition of ethics. Ethics comes from the Gréek word e0o¢ (ethos), which means customs, usage, OF customs, habits, character, or character. Generally speaking, it is the traditional manners, attitude of a community or a group, which pertains to the group’ standards or norms. In other words, ethics is a set of rules of human behavior, which has been influenced by the standards set by the society or by himself in telation to his society (Reyes 1989, 1). Ethics is more clearly defined as “a practical and normative science, based on reason, which studies human acts, and provides norms for their goodness and badness (Timbreza 1993, 3). This definition is to be explained as: Fthicsisa science, Science is defined as a systematized body of knowledge. As ascience, ethics is a systematic study of the grounds and norms of morality. However, ethics is first and foremost a practical science. As a practical science, ethics deals with a systematized body of knowledge that is applicable to human action (Timbreza). For this reason, the primary consideration of Ethics is the application of human knowledge and its practicality to human experience, Therefore, Ethics is to be considered a necessary part of life, ie., a part of man's daily existence.cience, ethics sets a basis or its rules and guidelines to science, ethics aids man in Secondly, Ethics is a normative science. As a normativ norm for the direction and regulation of human actions. It Maintain a sense of direction to human actions. As a normativi distinguishing whether one’s action can be considered good or bad. efore, be based on reason. For Thirdly, inasmuch as Ethics is a science, it should, therefore, be based ; 2 its basis from the power of ‘hia reas el eories and all moral decisions must have its ; on. Since the human person he is, therefore, capable of making moral lize on whether a particular action reason. Since the human person is rational being, » decisions. In other words, man has the capacity to rational can be considered proper or improper. Moreover, because Ethics is based on reason, it-is, therefore, ee fone or theology. Although both ethics and religion may have the same subject ees the existence of God and the final retribution, as well as the afterlife, there ae a en great difference in their approach to the same topic. While religion bas s ae ‘en fe Philosophy accepts truth on the basis of reason, For instance, theologians believ ee can be no morality without God, ethicians, however, would point out that even those do not believe in a God can as well have a moral life. There are even times when those who believe in a God can become more immoral than those who do not believe that God exists. ‘The point is that Ethics is not tied up with religion and theology. Fourthly, ethics studies human acts. To explain this, it is necessary to distinguish between human acts (actus humanus) and the acts of man (actus hominis). Human acts are those actions that are done by the human person based on knowledge and the full consent of the will. A human act is that which proceeds from the deliberate free will of the human person (Glenn 1965, 3). person, for example, is doing a human act if he knows what he is doing and if he is doing it freely and willingly irrespective of whether the action is good or bad. : On the other hand, acts of man are those actions that are done in the absence of either knowledge or will or of both knowledge and will—the two conditions of human acts. In this case, this action comprises all spontaneous, biological, and sensual processes like nutrition, breathing, and sensual impressions. This also include those actions done by lunatics, of drunken people and all spontaneous actions, which precede the activity of intellect and will, like initial reactions of anger or sympathy. For instance, a crime is to be considered a human actif there are knowledge and full consent of the will on the part of the criminal, This is in case that the said criminal knows already that such action is bad and he was not forced by anybody to do such an act, ie, he performs the said action through his own volition. In this case, the person who did the evil act out of knowledge and full consent of the will ic held morally liable for such an act. Ethics particularly deals with the volunt: ary human conduct. This voluntary conduct includes all actions as well as non-ac Nace tions because the human person u: ds ‘ ll actio V inderstan: and wails these activities in relation to some end that he has in view. This human conduct also includes the involuntary activities that are unlikel performed, yet inv f G , ; ly et involve a degree of Consequently, if the person, an act but against his own will, o1 is not, therefore, to be held mol who performed an immoral act, t merely unaware of the fact th: rally liable. On the other hand, was only forced to do such at such an action is bad, he the person who performed 8such evil act may be hel y be held responsible in terms of the human positive law. In the case of an evil act, the victim, theref . ctim, therefore, s s fi es do such an evil act against i nis Tah ie : dimen tpaaerenies norms fo the goodness and badness of certain . Ethics is mentioned in the previous hi ce whereby man is always oriented towards (Meyes, 2). As of his own life. In sett se apter, every human person sin constant search for the meaning or goal, Such Vision Inga meaning for his own existence, man has to have an ideal vision fine sion or goal is that which will lead him to happiness. Bthics is the one that provides the guidelines for which a human person can know if he is still leading his life to es goal which he sets for himself, This makes Ethics very important in the life of the human son. ) ‘The ideal vision of man provides for hima sense of value. Value is defined as that which an individual deems to be useful, desirable, or significant (Reyes, 3). Value sets in man an idea of good that is inclined towards that which is objectively the fulfillment of the being of man. Consequently, a good action is that which imposes a moral obligation or duty. The Importance of Studying Ethics The Bible states that man is by nature good. This is because he created as an imago Dei, an image of God. Because God is consideréd as the Summum Bonum or the Highest Good, man is also naturally good (cf. Genesis 1, 26-27) In this case, it is the nature of the human person to incline himself towards the good. ‘The human person naturally finds beauty in doing good deeds. He will eventually obtain meanings in his existence ifhe will be in constant search of goodness. However, since the human person is endowed with a faculty of reason, which is sometimes inclined towards his passion, there is always the possibility that he may choose to turn away from goodness. Man will always have the tendency to cling instead to the goods of this earth even it it will mean the loss of his supreme end and purpose. When this happens, man will lead himself to perform morally evil acts. Man’; inclination towards the earthly goods will oftentimes lead him to envy and despair. For this reason, man needs to study ethics to be guided so that he may be able to fully understand what real happiness i: ‘Through ethics, the human person will be able to understand that the goal of a human being is not merely the acquisition of material goods. Rather, his actual fulfillment lies in the development of the moral quality, which places the human person above brute creation. Ethics serves as the main instrument in the development of the qualities needed to acquire such goal. Ethics provides for a person an dos ok what right living is all about and the importance of acquiring good moral character. Ethics is the very investigation of the meaning of life. It gives a person the necessary uidelines for the acquisition of his goal. It also provides the person the meaning and Burpose of daily iving, as well asthe meaning and purpose of ie asa whole. As the human person is in constant ‘search for goodness, knowing and doing what is good will lead him to the attainment of this goal, which is goodness. In this regard, education can serve as the. +o ane in order to teach the young people about what good is, Hence, education ould gee merely focus on teaching technological innovations and advancements. Moral training andoo development, which are not given due emphasis in our educational system, must be given Sreater priority. Students must be taught that moral training must be learned and must be integrated into our system inasmuch as they will serve as the future educators to the next generations. Because Ethics gives direction to people who are in search for goodness, teachers who teach this subject can make the teaching profession more fruitful. Inasmuch as Plato considered Ethics a supreme philosophy, an Ethics teacher becomes more superior than the other philosophy teachers. At the same time, a student who is able to understand ethics and apply it in his life can be considered a superior individual. In this sense, the students of Ethics will have a great duty to understand the different ethical principles so that they can be able to make a stand regarding moral decisions. Ethics will make the students understand that it is the duty of every individual to understand certain ethical principles by heart as this will help them develop a moral way of life. for this reason, it is important that the students should understand that Ethics has to be more practical and must be based on the students’ day-to- day living rather than academic and doctrinal. In this case, the students of Ethics must endeavor to understand the ethical principles so that they will be able to make good decisions regarding moral issues. It will be the duty of the students to understand certain ethical principles by heart as this may help them develop a moral way of life, Oftentimes, the lack of definite ethical principles has been and is still the cause of great disorders in the world today. In this great sense, careful study of Ethics must be given great considerations. Plato, the Idealist [https:// en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Plato]. Ethics and Its Relation to Other Sciences Ethics is particularly concerned with the study of man and the human conduct. In this sense, it is very much related to the disciplines that deal with the study of human nature and human living. These disciplines include the following: 1. Ethics and Logic. Ethics is understood as the science of right living. Consequently, Logic is defined as the science and art which helps the human mind to distinguish between the correct from the incorrect arguments (Buenaflor 2014, 21). In other words, Logic deals with the method of acquiring right thinking, For this reason, Ethics and Logic are very much connected because a human person will not be able to acquire the knowledge of right living without having obtained the knowledge of right thinking first. We all know for a fact that no person can live properly or morally without first thinking rightly or logically. 2. Ethics and Psychology. Etymologically speaking, psychology comes from the Greek words yoxn (psuche), which means “soul” and oyos (logos), which means “study” or Science’. From the point of view of the philosophers, the soul is the principle of life and the principle of the human thoughts. They believed that the soul is the source of reason,x and therefore, the source of the behavior of the human person. In ie that which makes a man think and behave. In this aad eo soul paychalogy because both sciences deal with the study of man, the human cram aan behavior, If psychology studies how a man behaves, ethics deals with how man ought to behave. This oughtness in behavior presupposes proper living. Ethics is the means in order for the human person to have a kind of behavior appropriate to a human person. Ethics and Sociology. Sociology is the study of the relations of man to a society (Montemayor, 10). ‘This relation of man to his society is based on proper order, which can only be acquired through the proper observance of the moral laws and principles. Since Ethics deals with the moral order, which necessarily includes the social order, it is, therefore, proper to say that Ethics and Sociology are related to one another. Ethics and Economics. ‘The human person, by nature, is an economic being (Montemayor). ‘There is always a need for the human person to work in order to earn aliving. The Bible mentioned this as God’s punishment for the people. Because of the disobedience and pride of Adam and Eve, man has lost his beauty in the eyes of God. ‘Asa punishment for their disobedience, God made the human beings suffer by making work turn into a labor. From then on, man has to work in order to eat and survive in this world. In order to gain back his lost beauty, man has to work hard and perform good deeds so he can also find his way back to God. For this reason, Ethics became connected to economics because as one works to earn a living, he has to consider the others. As a social being, man should always bear in mind that he must also consider the welfare of others and not only his own welfare. Ethics and Education. Education plays a very important role in the life of people as it gives direction, goal, worth and meaning to human beings. In order to help the students in making his life’s goal and direction clearer, it is necessary to integrate Ethics into the curricula. Students must be taught the importance of correct living so that by doing so, they will be able to realize that this life should be made truly worth living for (Montemayor, 11). . Ethics and Law. Both Ethics and Law deal with the rightness and goodness. The only difference is that Law deals with the external acts of man, while Ethics deals with the internal acts, which include his thoughts and desires (Montemayor). Law should, therefore, be connected with Ethics because a human person who follows a law must be able to understand why such law should be followed in order to make the following of the law worthwhile and meaningful; otherwise, man will only follow a law just because he wanted to avoid punishment. Such following of laws will not be considered good in the ethical viewpoint. In this case, Law and Ethics should go together in order to comprise the holistic goodness of the human person. Ethics and Aesthetics, Aesthetics comes from the Greek word a1oeoig (Aisthesis), which means “order” or “harmony.” Ethics is aiming to obtain a harmonious life with the people in the community. Ethics deal with moral goodness which can be obtained when one learns to live well in a community. As Ethics deals with moral goodnes: ‘ is, therefore, proper to say that it is related to Aesthetics because goodness and eae ee very ape intertwined. ‘This is because we consider the good as beautiful and the ilyards the attainment of good government, which are of its citizens (Montemayor). However, in order to attain good government, both the leaders and their subordinates must necessarily learn to live a moral life. Hence. if we separate ethics from politics, the goal of politics, which is centered on the attainment of the common good, will never be realized. Ifa man will be able to base himself on experience, it will be observable that an unethical life can often time lead to corruption and to other crimes. Hence, Politics devoid of Ethics will always become disastrous. 8. Ethics and Politics. Politics aims tov centers on ensuring the temporal \ 9. Ethics and Religion. It has already been mentioned that Ethics is not Theology. Although just like religion, ethics may have also been considering the existence of God, Both Ethics and Religion are connected to one another because they are both based ‘on the same postulates, ie., the existence of 2 Creator, the freedom of the will in man, and the retribution in the afterlife. Ethics and Religion have the same end, i.e., the attainment of man’s supreme purpose on an ultimate end. And both will definitely describe the right living as the means for attaining the goal of man (Timbreza, 4). Standards of Morality: Moral vs. Non-Moral Ethics focuses its concern on determining what good is and finding ways on how to know whether one’s action is leading to his goodness or not. But in order to know what the good is, one has to have a principle that will set as the basis for determining the morality of ‘one’s act. The modern philosopher Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) held that there are three moral bases that will help one uphold an ethical principle: human freedom, immortality of the soul, and the existence of God. Philosophers had indeed been questioning as to whether there is really human freedom. No one can really prove whether the soul is really immortal and whether there is really a God. Indeed, one can say that there is freedom because man is capable of deliberation as to whether to do or not a particular act and his doing the action suggest that it was his personal choice. This could not be done unless one is free. However, others would say that there is no freedom because man’s action is determined by socio-cultural factors, such as religion, customs, education, and family upbringing (Timbreza 1993, 6). One’ decision, thoughts and- behavior are based on his Immanuel Kant (htip/ own socio-cultural formation. When one’ cultural formation has Tlaleaset ceo! molded the person to become critical about the laws and customs, el-kant/] his decisions and courses of actions will be determined by the said laws and customs and therefore, he is not anymore acting freely. Philosophers would also claim that inasmuch as the soul is spiritual in nature, it follows that it is also immortal. At the same time, following the principle nemo dat quod non habet (no one gives what he does not have), if the human person is capable of thinking spiritual, and therefore, immortal things, part of him should necessarily be spiritual and immortal. i immortal part of the human person is his soul. Hence, the human soul is immortal. though this is the case, there are still philosophers, like the materialists, who would claim that the soul cannot be immortal. They believed that once the’ body dies, the soul will die 2with the body. ‘The Bible would even claim that “man is dust, and unto dust, he shall return” (Genesis 3, 19). Death is the end of life and a liberation from all forms of sufferings. Man is thinking about the immortality of the soul because of his attachment to his physical life. Because he does not want to be detached from physical life, he is giving himself a hope that there can be an immortal soul so that he can continue enjoying this life. In: the idea of the existence of God, there are those who believe that there is a God who hing, who gives order to all existing things and who is acting as the Supreme e the existence of all things. Everything that exists is being odness of God. However, the atheists would claim that if ‘ho is the Highest Good, then why is it that there is evil in nite goodness of God, then there should be no e, an all-good God cannot exist. created everyth Intelligence who will cat considered as a product of the go everything is created by a God, wI this world? If the world is a product of the inf evil in this world. Because there is evil in the world, therefor It can be noted that the argument for and against the existence of God, the immortality of the soul, and the human freedom are plausible. ‘These arguments must be postulated because this will be the basis of morality inasmuch as if these will not be given credit, then doing good or evil will become meaningless. It should be noted that the individual's freedom can account for personal responsibility because if one is not free, then his action will neither be considered good nor bad. This is because if one is not free, he cannot be held morally responsible for his action. At the same time, the immortality of the soul must also be considered as a basis for morality as it provides meaning to one’s life. Becatise life is full of evilness and sufferings due to the wickedness of other people, the immortality of the soul will make the human person understand the importance of doing good’as this immortality will provide a justification regarding the reason for doing good and avoiding evil. If one is able to do good deeds in this earthly life, all his sufferings will be rewarded but all the evil things he’s done will receive retribution. If there will be no immortality of the soul, then doing moral actions will become meaningless. If God does not exist, then who would give reward to those who do good deeds and punish those who do evil deeds. It will become pointless and meaningless if one is to die unrewarded for doing good and go unpunished for doing evil things. If there is no God, then life and morality will become insignificant. But life cannot be meaningless. In this regard, the most reasonable thing to consider is the fact that God exists in order to provide a meaningful life. For this reason, in the determination as to whether an action is to be considered good or evil, one should consider the three questions: (1) is the action a product of a free will? (2) is it going to lead me to a better position in the after life?, and (3) is the action according to the will of God, who is the Highest Good? From the said questions, one can make an assessment as to whether his action is going to be considered ethical or not. Why Do We Have to be Ethical? From the aforementioned ethical bases, it can be said that a hu From the a ses, human person need what is ethical in order to obtain freedom and in order to prepare himself for an sane life with God. In this regard, the human person must be able to determine what is the right thing to do as this will also determine what kind of person he will be. . 13ants to do can be contradictory to what is the right are may not be the practical thing to do. Because of this, determining what the proper thing to do becomes difficult, One would become Bay a hile the others are becoming practical while doing what 7 ould ee this reason, it becomes quite difficult to determine the morality consider being immoral. ea fora person to know whether he is acting morally or not, eee ee ‘is a need to have a guide to moral action so that it will become eee ba ; evertain situations. There is a need to have an ethical principle that ie 7 ace aire In order to develop one’s character, there is a need to become will make deci a ethical. However, determining wha thing to do and the right thing to do r The Divisions of Ethics ; : is ethical or not, it is important first to determine to know whether an action is etl i i the 7 ae because ethics, as a discipline, will help the human person determine mae his action is morally acceptable or not. From the traditional point of view, ethics can be divided into two main divisions: (1) general ethics, and (2) applied ethics. According to Dr. Florentino Timbreza (1993, 9), general ethics refers to all the diverse ethical formulations of general and universal concepts and principles which serve as the foundation of morality. It attempts to identify the moral norms that will determine which actions are to be considered good and evil. Because the norms are considered to be the guide to action, the said norms are going to be considered valid in situations that will require the same ethical decisions. Since general ethics deals with the issue of the norm of morality, it can, therefore, be referred to as the normative ethics, which can be distinguished from the non-normative ethics. Non-normative ethics deals with a factual investigation of the social patterns of a society as compared to that of the other society. This refers to the cultural practices which a particular society will accept as ethical. On the other hand, normative ethics attempts to disclose the underlying moral norm by which people act, judge, and decide on certain ethical matters (Timbreza), Meanwhile, Applied Ethics focuses on Particular situations in life where the principles of general ethics can be applied (Glenn 196: 8, xiii). It does not only apply the general moral concepts and principles but also specifies the Particular situations in life in which they are valid and legitimate; hence it is also known as special ethics. In an attempt to resolve specific moral problems, the principles of general ethics are going to be applied (Timbreza). From this applied ethics comes the other subdivisions like professional ethics, which deals with the rules by which the Me aed eel, People would behave and act so that they can properly live th Other than that, there is also the A : : fession should follow. ‘There is alge i - legal ethics by which the people in the legal profes Principles appropriate f de of ethics for teachers so that they can follow the whichis also es ia educators, There is also the ethics for the medical profession some guideline i Hoethics. From all these ethical principles, one would be able to ge character, Th Order to perform a moral action and eventually become a person of mor * ihese ethical standards will serve as moral rules which everyone should follow it 4order to provide order and in order to get things done. Without these princi : principles, : sane tow what to do and how to live with others. From these ethical Ps ee be able to know the importance of giving fair treatment to everyone, of providing ne se equality, of understanding the rights of workers and the children. gender ‘The ethical standards provide a basis why the actions that can seriously injure other fellow human beings, ike theft, rape, fraud, slander, and murder are considered evil. Italso provides a justification why the rules of the majority do not always apply to moral principles. Inother words, one should not consider an action as moral simply on the basis that it is being the majority as acceptable even if it is not really moral. In this regard, the ‘Il be understood as more important than other values like cheating in order The ethical standards, must, therefore, focus on respecting one relationship with others, which includes one’s family and friends, as well as the poor and the disabled. When a human person fails to comply with the moral standards, he may have the tendency to seriously injure his fellow human beings. In this sense, one fails to become truly human. considered by moral values to obtain socio-economic improvement. 15