I. GENERAL GEOLOGY We also have different types of terrains.

The common
ones are plateau, mountain, plain, and valley terrains. Other
EARTH STRUCTURE AND COMPOSITION
types of terrains include open, tundra, oasis, steppe, desert,
*The Science of Geology is concerned with the Earth swamp, forest, marsh, river, and hill.
and

the rocks of which it is composed, the processes by

which
they were formed during geological time, and the model
ling of the Earth's surface in the past and at the present
day. The Earth is not a static body but is constantly
subject to changes both at its surface and at deeper
levels.
EARTH PLANET PROFILE
Plate Tectonics
Plate tectonics is the theory that Earth's outer shell is
divided into several plates that glide over the mantle, the
rocky inner layer above the core. The plates act like a hard
and rigid shell compared to Earth's mantle.
The main force that shapes our planet's surface over long
amounts of time is the movement of Earth's outer layer by the
process of plate tectonics. These plates are made of rock, but
the rock is, in general, lightweight compared with the denser,
fluid layer underneath. This allows the plates to "float" on top
of the denser material.

Equatorial Diameter: 12,756 km The possible movement of the continents relative to one
another in the geological past was first outlined at length by
Polar Diameter: 12,714 km
Alfred Wegener in 1912, and it became a matter of
Mass: 5.97 × 10^24 kg controversy for many years. During the 1960s, however,

Moons: 1 (The Moon) new evidence came to light which conclusively demonstrated
that drifting had taken place; the evidence came largely from
Orbit Distance: 149,598,262 km (1 AU) the study of magnetism in the rocks of the Earth's crust and
Orbit Period: 365.24 days from detailed surveys of the ocean

Surface Temperature: -88 to 58°C floors. These demonstrated that the continents have not

remained in their same relative position and that the

AGE ocean floors are much younger than the continents they

4.543 billion years separate.

>Young Earth Creationism (YEC) Movements deep within the Earth, which carry heat from
the hot interior to the cooler surface, cause the plates
- a form of creationism which claims that the earth to move very slowly on the surface, about 2 inches per
is 6,000 to 10,000 years only year. Subduction zones form when plates crash into each
other, spreading ridges form when plates pull away from each
>Old Earth Creationism (OEC)
other, and large faults form when plates slide past each other.
-a form of creationism which claims that the earth
When two sections of the Earth's crust collide, one slab
is 4.5 billion years
of crust can be forced back down into the deeper regions of
the Earth. This process is called subduction.

SURFACE OF THE EARTH

Most of the Earth's surface (70%) is covered
with water, and the remaining 30% is taken up by the
seven continental landmasses. However, underneath the
water that fills the oceans, and the dirt and plants that
cover the continents, the Earth's surface layer is made of
rock. This outer layer formed a hard, rocky crust as lava
at the surface cooled 4.5 billion years ago.
Earth’s surface features are the result of
constructive and destructive forces. Constructive forces
cause land forms to grow. The eruption of a new volcano
creates a new landform. Destructive forces wear land
forms down. The slow processes of mechanical and
chemical weathering and erosion work over time to
change once high mountains into smooth flat plateaus.
There are four types of plate boundaries:
1. Divergent boundaries -- where new crust is generated
as the plates pull away from each other.
2. Convergent boundaries -- where crust is destroyed as
one plate dives under another.
3. Transform boundaries -- where crust is neither
produced nor destroyed as the plates slide horizontally
past each other.
4. Plate boundary zones -- broad belts in which
boundaries are not well defined and the effects of plate
interaction are unclear.

How Do Plates Move?

 Plates at our planet’s surface move because of the
intense heat in the Earth’s core that causes molten rock
in the mantle layer to move. It moves in a pattern called
a convection cell that forms when warm material rises,
cools, and eventually sink down. As the cooled material
sinks down, it is warmed and rises again.
As hot magma rises to the surface at spreading
ridges and forms new crust, the new crust pushes the
rest of a plate out of its way. This is called ridge push.
Old parts of a plate are likely to sink down into the
mantle at subduction zones because they are colder and
thicker than the warm mantle material underneath
them. This is called slab pull.
STRUCTURE OF THE INTERIOR OF EARTH
The Earth's interior consists of rock and metal. It is
made up of four main layers:
1) the inner core: a solid metal core made up of nickel
and iron (2440 km diameter)
2) the outer core: a liquid molten core of nickel and iron
3) the mantle: dense and mostly solid silicate rock
4) the crust: thin silicate rock material
Core, mantle, and crust are divisions based on
composition. The crust makes up less than 1 percent of
Earth by mass, consisting of oceanic crust and
continental crust is often more felsic rock. The mantle is
hot and represents about 68 percent of Earth’s mass.
Finally, the core is mostly iron metal. The core makes up
about 31% of the Earth. Lithosphere and asthenosphere
are divisions based on mechanical properties.
The lithosphere is composed of both the crust and the
portion of the upper mantle that behaves as a brittle,
rigid solid. The asthenosphere is partially molten upper
mantle material that behaves plastically and can flow.
There are two very different types of crust, each
with its own distinctive physical and chemical
properties.Oceanic crust is composed of magma that
erupts on the seafloor to create basalt lava flows or
cools deeper down to create the intrusive igneous rock
gabbro.
Continental crust is made up of many different types of
igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary rocks.
The two most important things about the mantle are: (1)
it is made of solid rock, and (2) it is hot. Heat flows in
two different ways within the Earth: conduction and
convection.
Convection is the heat transfer due to the bulk
movement of molecules within fluids such as gases and
liquids, including molten rock. Conduction is the
process by which heat energy is transmitted through
collisions between neighboring atoms or molecules and
it occurs more readily in solids and liquids, where the
particles are closer to together, than in gases, where
particles are further apart.
At the planet’s center lies a dense metallic core.
Scientists know that the outer core is liquid and the inner
core is solid because S-waves stop at the inner core. S
wave or secondary wave, which is the second wave you feel
in an earthquake. An S wave is slower than P wave and can
only move through solid rock, not through any liquid
medium.The strong magnetic field is caused by convection in
the liquid outer core. Convection currents in the outer core
are due to heat from the even hotter inner core. The heat that
keeps the outer core from solidifying is produced by the
breakdown of radioactive elements in the inner core.
GROUP 1
 OBOG, Jamaica
 CRIBE, John Renz
 SERGIO, Mark Jodel
 VILLAGRACIA, Yves Djonly
 YASIS, Jed
FUN FACTS ABOUT THE EARTH
Earth doesn’t take 24 hours to rotate on its axis.
It’s actually 23 hours, 56 minutes and 4 seconds. This is the
amount of time it takes for the Earth to completely rotate
around its axis; astronomers call this a sidereal day. Now wait
a second, that means a day is 4 minutes shorter than we think
it is. You’d think that time would add up, day by day, and
within a few months, day would be night, and night would be
day.
A year on Earth isn’t 365 days.
It’s actually 365.2564 days. It’s this extra .2564 days that
creates the need for leap years. That’s why we tack on an
extra day in February every year divisible by 4 – 2004, 2008,
etc – unless it’s divisible by 100 (1900, 2100, etc)… unless it’s
divisible by 400 (1600, 2000, etc).
Earth has 1 moon and 2 co-orbital satellites
As you’re probably aware, Earth has 1 moon (The Moon). But
did you know there are 2 additional asteroids locked into a
co-orbital orbits with Earth? They’re called 3753 Cruithne
and 2002 AA29. We won’t go into too much detail about the
Moon, I’m sure you’ve heard all about it.
>3753 Cruithne is 5 km across, and sometimes called Earth’s
second moon. It doesn’t actually orbit the Earth, but has a
synchronized orbit with our home planet. It has an orbit that
makes it look like it’s following the Earth in orbit, but it’s
actually following its own, distinct path around the Sun.
>2002 AA29 is only 60 meters across, and makes a horseshoe
orbit around the Earth that brings it close to the planet every
95 years. In about 600 years, it will appear to circle Earth in a
quasi-satellite orbit. Scientists have suggested that it might
make a good target for a space exploration mission.
The Earth is not actually round in shape; in fact it is geoid.
This simply means that the rounded shape has a slight bulge
towards the equator. So what causes this geoid shape? This
happens solely because the rotation of the Earth which causes
the bulge around the equator.
I. GENERAL GEOLOGY
EARTH PROCESSES
WEATHERING
Weathering describes the breaking down or
dissolving of rocks and minerals on the surface of
the Earth. Water, ice, acids, salts, plants, animals,
and changes in temperature are all agents of
weathering. Once a rock has been broken down, a
process called erosion transports the bits of rock
and mineral away. Weathering and erosion
constantly change the rocky landscape of Earth.
Weathering is often divided into the processes:
Biological weathering, in which living or once-
living organisms contribute to weathering, can be a
part of both processes. Mechanical weathering,
also called physical weathering and disaggregation,
causes rocks to crumble. Water, in either liquid or
solid form, is often a key agent of mechanical
weathering. Chemical weathering changes the
molecular structure of rocks and soil.
The reaction between rocks and oxygen is
known as oxidation. When elements or compounds
in rocks react with oxygen and water, they form
substances called oxides. When carbon dioxide in
the air dissolves in water, it forms carbonic acid.
While carbonic acid is fairly weak, it can cause a
form of chemical weathering known as
carbonation. Hydrolysis describes a form of
chemical weathering in which water chemically
bonds with rock minerals, generally producing a
weaker material. Hydration occurs when a mineral
absorbs water to form a new substance. Hydration
causes the rock to expand its volume. While
hydration adds water to form a rock with a new
chemical structure, dehydration involves the
removal of water from rocks.
WORK OF RIVERS
The erosional work of streams/rivers carves and
shapes the landscape through which they flow.
3 functions of rivers:
 Erosion
 Transportation
 Deposition
A. Erosion
A river may erode in 4 ways:
 Abrasion/corrasion
 Attrition
 Hydraulic action
 Solution/Corrosion
B. Transportation (4 ways)
 Traction
 Saltation
 Suspension
 Solution
C. Deposition
 Volume decreases. A river’s volume decreases when
Dry season Dry region with high evaporation
Presence of permeable rocks Receding flood waters
 Speed decreases. A river’s speed decreases when It
enters a lake It enters a calm sea It enters a gently
sloping plain
WORK OF WINDS
Aeolian processes, also spelled eolian or æolian,
pertain to wind activity in the study of geology and
weather and specifically to the wind's ability to shape the
surface of the Earth. Wind act as agent of erosion, as a
carrier for transporting particles and grains so eroded
from one place and also for depositing huge quantities of
such wind blown material at different places. There are
three modes of activities i.e. erosion, transportation and
deposition by wind.
Erosion by wind.
There are three (3) methods of wind erosion. The process
of removal of particle of dust and sand by strong wind is
called deflation. Another type of erosion involving
rubbing, grinding, polishing the rock surface by any
natural agent is termed as abrasion. The wear and tear of
load particles suffered by them due to mutual impacts
during the transportation process is termed as attrition.
Sedimentation transport by wind.
Methods of Transport: The wind transport is carried
out mainly by two distinctly different processes:
Suspension: The light density clay and silt particles may
be lifted by the wind from the ground and are carried
high up to the upper layer of the wind where they move
along with the wind. This is called transport in
suspension. Saltation: the heavier and coarse sediments
such as sand grains, pebbles and gravels are lifted up
periodically during high velocity wind only for short
distance. They may be dropped and picked up again and
again during the transport process.
Deposition by Wind Aeolian deposits.
Sediments and particles once picked up by the
wind from any source on the surface are carried
forward for varying distances depending on the
carrying capacity of the wind. Wherever and
whenever the velocity of wind suffers a check from
one reason or another a part or whole of the wind
load is deposited at that place. These wind made
deposits may ultimately take the shape of landform
that are commonly referred as aeoline deposits.
These are of two main types of deposits dunes and
loess. Dunes are variously shaped deposits of sand-
grade particles accumulated by wind. A typical sand
dune is defined as a broad conical heap. In some
parts of the world, wind blown dust and silt blanket
the land. This layer of fine, mineral-rich material is
called loess.
WORK OF SEA
Marine water is spread over more than two
third of the earth’s surface and is classed among the
most powerful geological agents operating on the
earth. Like other geological agencies, seawater also
acts as an agent of erosion, transport and
deposition. All the geological work performed by
marine water is due to regular and irregular
disturbances taking places in the body of water.
Mostly in the surface layer and distinguished as
waves and currents.
Marine Erosion
Marine water erodes the rocks at the shore and
elsewhere with which it comes in contact in a
manner broadly similar to that of stream water. The
work of erosion is accomplished in three ways.
Hydraulic action, abrasion, and corrosion.
>Hydraulic Action: This is the process of erosion by
water involving breaking, loosening and plucking
out of loose, disjointed blocks of rocks from their
original places by the strong forces created by the
impact of sea waves and currents.
>Marine Abrasion This involves the rubbing and
grinding action of seawater on the rocks of the
shore with the help of sand particles and other small
fragments that are hurdled up again these rocks.
>Corrosion: It is the solvent action of seawater
which is particularly strong in environment where
the shore is of vulnerable chemical composition.
Feature of Marine Erosion
Some very common features of marine erosion
are headlands, bays, sea cliff and wave-cut terraces.
>Headlands and Bays: In an originally uniform
sloping shoreline composed of materials of unequal
hardness, the softer rocks get eroded easily and
quickly. Seawater enters the inland spaces so
created along the shore, These form the bays. The
stronger rocks, however, resist erosion to a great
extent and stand for a considerable time. These may
get smoothened and variously modified but still stand as
projecting parts of original as headlands.
>A Sea cliff is seaward facing steep front of a moderately
high shoreline and indicates the first stage of the work of
waves on the shore rocks.
>A wave-Cut Terrace is a shallow shelf type structure,
carved out from the shore rocks by the advancing sea
waves.
Marine Deposition
Seas are regarded as most important and extensive
sedimentation basins, this becomes evident from the fact
that marine deposits of practically of all the geological
ages. These deposits are exposed at many places in
almost all the continents and all the marine deposits are
conveniently classified into two groups: Shallow water
deposits and Deep-water deposits.
Shallow Water( Neritic Deposits)
These include marine deposits laid down in neritic
zone of the sea, which extends from the lowest tide limit
to the place of the continent shelf where the slope
becomes steeper.
(i) Beaches: These are loose deposits made by the sea
near the shore from the materials eroded from nearby
regions. The lower margin of a beach is commonly
beneath the waves whereas the upper margin is a few
meter above the still water. Waves and currents play a
greater role in formation of a beach.
(ii) Splits and Bars: These are ridge shaped deposits of
sand and shingle that often extends across the
embayment.
(iii) Tombola: It is the form of marine deposit that
connects a headland and an island or one island with
another island.
Deep Water Deposits
These deposits consists mostly of Mud and oozes and are
called as pelagic deposits. The oozes that form bulk of some
such deposits consist of small organisms known collectively
as planktons. Death and decay of these organisms and plants
followed by their accumulation in regular and irregular
shapes These deposits are commonly called as reefs. Coral
Reefs, these are peculiar type of ridge like marine deposits
that have been found due to accumulation of dead parts of
certain type of sea organisms. Corals a typically a calcium
secreting organisms predominate the source for such reefs
hence they are commonly designated as coral reefs.
Discontinuities Inside the Earth
There are five discontinuies inside the earth.
Conrad Discontinuity: Transition zone between SIAL and
SIMA.
Mohorovicic Discontinuity: Transition zone between the
Crust and Mantle.
Repiti Discontinuity: Transition zone between Outer mantle
and Inner mantle.
Gutenberg Discontinuity: Transition zone between
Mantle and Core.
Lehman Discontinuity: Transition zone between Outer
core and Inner core.
Conrad Discontinuity:
The transition zone between thee upper and lower part
of the lithosphere, is called as Conrad discontinuity. The
name come from the Austrian geophysicist Vector
Conrad . The seismologists of that time considered that
Conrad discontinuity should correspond to a sharply
defined contact between the chemically distinct layers of
SIAL and SIMA.
Mohorovicic Discontinuity:
The transition zone between the crust and mantle is
called as mohorovicic discontinuity. The mohorovicic
discontinuity was discovered by Andrija Mohorovicic in
the year of 1909. Moho is characterized by up to 500km
thick.
Gutenberg Discontinuity:
The mantle –core transition zone is called Gutenberg
discontinuity. In the year of 1912 Weichert Gutenberg
was discovered this discontinuity at the depth of
2900km beneath the earth surface. S wave shear
material and cannot transmit through liquid. So, it is
believed that the part of above the discontinuity is solid
and part of beneath then discontinuity is liquid or
molten form. This molten section is thought to be 700°c,
hotter than the overlying mantle. It is also denser,
probably due to a greater percentage of iron.
Repiti Discontinuity
It is the transition zone between Outer mantle and Inner
mantle.
Lehmann discontinuity
It is the transition zone between outer and inner core.
The Lehmann discontinuity is an abrupt increase of P-
wave and S-wave velocities at the depth of 220±30 km,
discovered by seismologist Inge Lehmann. It appears
beneath continents, but not usually beneath oceans, and
does not readily appear in globally averaged studies.
Several explanations have been proposed: a lower limit
to the pliable asthenosphere, phase transition, and most
plausibly, depth variation in the shear wave anisotropy.
Discontinuities Inside the Earth
There are five discontinuies inside the earth.
Conrad Discontinuity: Transition zone between SIAL
and SIMA.
Mohorovicic Discontinuity: Transition zone between
the Crust and Mantle.
Repiti Discontinuity: Transition zone between Outer
mantle and Inner mantle.
Gutenberg Discontinuity: Transition zone between
Mantle and Core.
Lehman Discontinuity: Transition zone between Outer
core and Inner core.
Conrad Discontinuity:
The transition zone between thee upper and lower part of the
lithosphere, is called as Conrad discontinuity. The name come
from the Austrian geophysicist Vector Conrad . The
seismologists of that time considered that Conrad
discontinuity should correspond to a sharply defined contact
between the chemically distinct layers of SIAL and SIMA.
Mohorovicic Discontinuity:
The transition zone between the crust and mantle is called as
mohorovicic discontinuity. The mohorovicic discontinuity
was discovered by Andrija Mohorovicic in the year of 1909.
Moho is characterized by up to 500km thick.
Gutenberg Discontinuity:
The mantle –core transition zone is called Gutenberg
discontinuity. In the year of 1912 Weichert Gutenberg was
discovered this discontinuity at the depth of 2900km beneath
the earth surface. S wave shear material and cannot transmit
through liquid. So, it is believed that the part of above the
discontinuity is solid and part of beneath then discontinuity is
liquid or molten form. This molten section is thought to be
700°c, hotter than the overlying mantle. It is also denser,
probably due to a greater percentage of iron.
Repiti Discontinuity
It is the transition zone between Outer mantle and Inner
mantle.
Lehmann discontinuity
It is the transition zone between outer and inner core. The
Lehmann discontinuity is an abrupt increase of P-wave and S-
wave velocities at the depth of 220±30 km, discovered by
seismologist Inge Lehmann. It appears beneath continents,
but not usually beneath oceans, and does not readily appear
in globally averaged studies. Several explanations have been
proposed: a lower limit to the pliable asthenosphere, phase
transition, and most plausibly, depth variation in the shear
wave anisotropy.
GENERAL GEOLOGY
ORIGIN AND MODE OF OCCURENCE OF AN
EARTHQUAKE
Little was understood about earthquakes until
the emergence of seismology at the beginning of the 20th
century. Seismology, which involves the scientific study
of all aspects of earthquakes, has yielded answers to such
long-standing questions as why and how earthquakes
occur.
CONTINENTAL DRIFT AND PLATE-TECTONICS
THEORY
According to the theory of continental drift, the
world was made up of a single continent through most of
geologic time. That continent eventually separated and
drifted apart, forming into the seven continents we have
today. The first comprehensive theory of continental drift
was suggested by the German meteorologist Alfred
Wegener in 1912. The hypothesis asserts that the
continents consist of lighter rocks that rest on heavier
crustal material—similar to the manner in which icebergs
float on water. Wegener contended that the relative
positions of the continents are not rigidly fixed but are
slowly moving—at a rate of about one yard per
century.
According to the generally accepted plate-
tectonics theory, scientists believe that Earth's
surface is broken into a number of shifting slabs or
plates, which average about 50 miles in thickness.
These plates move relative to one another above a
hotter, deeper, more mobile zone at average rates as
great as a few inches per year. Most of the world's
active volcanoes are located along or near the
boundaries between shifting plates and are called
plate-boundary volcanoes.
Earthquake, is any sudden shaking of the
ground caused by the passage of seismic waves
through Earth’s rocks. Seismic waves are produced
when some form of energy stored in Earth’s crust is
suddenly released, usually when masses of rock
straining against one another suddenly fracture and
“slip.” Earthquakes occur most often along geologic
faults, narrow zones where rock masses move in
relation to one another. The major fault lines of the
world are located at the fringes of the huge tectonic
plates that make up Earth’s crust.
There are four different types of earthquakes:
Tectonic, volcanic, collapse and explosion.
 A tectonic earthquake is one that occurs when
the earth's crust breaks due to geological forces
on rocks and adjoining plates that cause
physical and chemical changes.
 A volcanic earthquake is any earthquake that
results from tectonic forces which occur in
conjunction with volcanic activity.
 A collapse earthquake are small earthquakes
in underground caverns and mines that are
caused by seismic waves produced from the
explosion of rock on the surface.
 An explosion earthquake is an earthquake that
is the result of the detonation of a nuclear
and/or chemical device.
The effect of an earthquake is the damage
which happens as a result of the earthquake. The
effects of an earthquake can vary depending on:
 The size of the earthquake on the Richter
scale - the higher it is on the scale, the more
destruction it can cause.
 Level of development - whether it occurs in a
rich or a poor country. Richer countries will be
more likely to be able to predict, protect and prepare
themselves from the effects of an earthquake.
 The depth of the focus - if it's shallow, it can be more
destructive.
 Distance from epicenter - the effects of an
earthquake are more severe at its center.
 Population density - the more people living in an
area, the more likely that more deaths and casualties
may arise.
 The time of day - whether people are in their homes,
work or travelling.
OCCURRENCE OF EARTHQUAKES
As we have seen, earthquakes are caused by the
reshaping of Earth through the movement of Earth's
tectonic plates. Most earthquakes occur along tectonic
plate boundaries, along cracks in the lithosphere called
faults, or along the mid-oceanic ridges but the majority of
the seismic energy released in the world is from
earthquakes occurring along the plate boundaries,
particularly around the Pacific Rim or the so-called Ring
of Fire where there is a particularly intense tectonic
activity that causes Tsunamis on a regular basis.
FAULT
Fault, in geology, a planar or gently curved
fracture in the rocks of the Earth’s crust, where
compressional or tensional forces cause relative
displacement of the rocks on the opposite sides of the
fracture. Faults range in length from a few centimeters to
many hundreds of kilometers, and displacement likewise
may range from less than a centimeter to several hundred
kilometers along the fracture surface (the fault plane).
There are three different types of faults: Normal,
Reverse, and Transcurrent (Strike-Slip).
 Normal faults form when the hanging wall drops
down. The forces that create normal faults are pulling
the sides apart, or extensional.
 Reverse faults form when the hanging wall moves
up. The forces creating reverse faults are compressional,
pushing the sides together.
>A thrust fault is a special kind of reverse fault
where one or more plates are under the ocean. At
a thrust fault, a plate below the sea is moving
under another plate, thrusting its edge upward.
>Blind Thrust fault is a thrust fault that does
not rupture all the way up to the surface so there
is no evidence of it on the ground. It is buried
under the uppermost layers of rock in the crust.
 Transcurrent or Strike-slip faults have walls
that move sideways, not up or down.
RING OF FIRE
The Ring of Fire, also referred to as the Circum-
Pacific Belt, is a path along the Pacific Ocean
characterized by active volcanoes and frequent
earthquakes. The majority of Earth’s volcanoes and
earthquakes take place along the Ring of Fire.
 Seventy-five percent of Earth’s volcanoes—
more than 450 volcanoes—are located along the
Ring of Fire. Ninety percent of Earth’s earthquakes
occur along its path, including the planet’s most
violent and dramatic seismic events.
The abundance of volcanoes and
earthquakes along the Ring of Fire is caused by the
amount of movement of tectonic plates in the area.
Along much of the Ring of Fire, plates overlap at
convergent boundaries called subduction zones.
That is, the plate that is underneath is pushed down,
or subducted, by the plate above. As rock is
subducted, it melts and becomes magma. The
abundance of magma so near to Earth’s surface
gives rise to conditions ripe for volcanic activity. A
significant exception is the border between the
Pacific and North American Plates. This stretch of
the Ring of Fire is a transform boundary, where
plates move sideways past one another. This type of
boundary generates a large number of earthquakes
as tension in Earth’s crust builds up and is released.
EARTHQUAKE MEASUREMENTS
Earthquakes, until recently, have been
measured on the Richter scale. The Richter scale
measures the magnitude of an earthquake (how
powerful it is). It is measured using a machine called
a seismometer/seismograph which produces a
seismogram.
A Richter scale is normally numbered 1-10,
though there is no upper limit. It is logarithmic
which means, for example, that an earthquake
measuring magnitude 5 is ten times more powerful
than an earthquake measuring 4. Earthquakes
measuring 1-2 on the scale happen regularly, and
they are so small that people cannot feel them.
Earthquakes measuring upwards of 7 are less
frequent but very powerful, and can cause a lot of
destruction.
The largest earthquake ever recorded was in
Chile in 1960, which measured 9.5 on the Richter
scale. The Richter scale is not very accurate in
measuring these larger earthquakes and today
scientists use the Moment Magnitude Scale which
uses the same logarithmic scale but which more
accurately measures the strength of larger
earthquakes.
The severity of an earthquake can be expressed
in terms of both intensity and magnitude.
However, the two terms are quite different, and they
are often
confused. Magnitude is related to the amount of seismic
energy released at the hypocenter of the earthquake
whereas intensity is based on the observed effects of
ground shaking on people, buildings, and natural
features. The intensity of shaking from an earthquake
varies depending on where you are during the
earthquake.
FINDING THE EPICENTER
You have just figured out how far your seismograph is
from the epicenter and how strong the earthquake was,
but you still don't know exactly where the earthquake
occurred. This is where the compass, the map, and the
other seismograph records come in.
Triangulation method is a way of determining
something's location using the locations of other things. It
is commonly used by geologists to find the locations of
Earthquakes, and is also used to determine spacecraft
location.
 Check the scale on your map. It should look
something like a piece of a ruler. All maps are
different. On your map, one centimeter could be
equal to 100 kilometers or something like that.
 Figure out how long the distance to the epicenter
(in centimeters) is on your map. For example, say
your map has a scale where one centimeter is equal
to 100 kilometers. If the epicenter of the earthquake
is 215 kilometers away, that equals 2.15 centimeters
on the map.
 Using your compass, draw a circle with a radius
equal to the number you came up with in Step #2 (the
radius is the distance from the center of a circle to its
edge). The center of the circle will be the location of
your seismograph. The epicenter of the earthquake is
somewhere on the edge of that circle.
 Do the same thing for the distance to the
epicenter that the other seismograms recorded (with
the location of those seismographs at the center of
their circles). All of the circles should overlap. The
point where all of the circles overlap is the
approximate epicenter of the earthquake.
LIQUEFACTION
Liquefaction is a phenomenon in which the
strength and stiffness of a soil is reduced by earthquake
shaking or other rapid loading. Liquefaction and related
phenomena have been responsible for tremendous
amounts of damage in historical earthquakes around the
world.
Liquefaction occurs in saturated soils, that is, soils
in which the space between individual particles is
completely filled with water. This water exerts a
pressure on the soil particles that influences how
tightly the particles themselves are pressed together.
Prior to an earthquake, the water pressure is
relatively low. However, earthquake shaking can cause
the water pressure to increase to the point where the
soil particles can readily move with respect to each
other.
 Earthquake shaking often triggers this increase
in water pressure, but construction related activities
such as blasting can also cause an increase in water
pressure.
When liquefaction
occurs, the strength of
the soil decreases and,
the ability of a soil
deposit to support
foundations for
buildings and bridges is reduced as seen in the
photo (SC) of the overturned apartment complex
buildings in Niigata in 1964.
PHILLIPINE FAULT LINES AND TRENCHES
List of active fault lines in the Philippines:
 Marikina Valley Fault (Montalban, San
Mateo, Marikina, Pasig, Taguig, Muntinlupa, San
Pedro, Binan, Carmona, Santa Rosa, Calamba,
Tagaytay, Oriental Mindoro)
 Western Philippine Fault (Luzon Sea,
Mindoro Strait, Panay Gulf, Sulu Sea)
 Eastern Philippine Fault (Philippine Sea)
 Southern of Mindanao Fault (Moro Gulf,
Celebes Sea)
 Central Philippine Fault (Entire Ilocos
Norte, Aurora, Quezon, Masbate, Eastern Leyte,
Southern Leyte, Agusan Del Norte, Agusan Del
Sur, Davao del Norte)
One of these, the MARIKINA VALLEY FAULT
poses the greatest danger because it cuts through all
the modern and progressive portions of Manila such
as Eastwood, Rockwell, Ortigas Center, Bonifacio
Global City, Ayala Center, and Alabang.
Philippine Trench,
also called
Philippine Deep,
Mindanao Trench,
or Mindanao Deep,
submarine trench in
the floor of the
Philippine Sea of the
western North
Pacific Ocean
bordering the east
coast of the island of
Mindanao. The
abyss, which reaches the second greatest depth
known in any ocean, was first plumbed in 1927 by
the German ship Emden. The reading obtained at
that time was the first indication of the actual near-
record depth. In 1945 the USS Cape Johnson
recorded a sounding of 34,440 feet (10,497 meters),
slightly exceeded by the 34,578-foot sounding
originally made by the Danish Alethea in 1951. Later
soundings reported to exceed these have been
found to be instrumentation errors.
https://faultfinder.phivolcs.dost.gov.ph/
PROTECTION
Involves constructing buildings so that they are safe to
live in and will not collapse. Some examples of building
improvements are:
 Rubber shock absorbers in the foundations to
absorb the Earth tremors
 Steel frames that can sway during Earth
movements
 Open areas outside of the buildings where people
can assemble during an evacuation
PREPARATION
In earthquake-prone countries, hospitals,
emergency services and residents practice for an
earthquake. They have drills in all public buildings so that
people know what to do in the event of an earthquake.
This helps to reduce the impact and increases their
chance of survival.
ENGINEERING CONNECTION
Engineers need to thoroughly understand the processes that
shape the Earth so they can design structures (schools,
hospitals, bridges, etc.) that are able to withstand natural
disasters, such as earthquakes, volcanoes and hurricanes. In
addition to designing
GENERAL GEOLOGY
PROSPECTING
The satisfactory design and construction of an
engineering structure can be accomplished only when the
character of the soil or rock, on which or within which it is to
be built, is known. For this knowledge to be obtained the
ground must be carefully studied by investigations conducted
in-situ. Engineering structures such as roads, dams, buildings,
tunnels and other underground works, are normally
constructed according to the requirements of a specific design
and from selected construction materials: by observing these
requirements the strength of the completed structures is
known and their response to load and displacement maybe
predicted. To obtain comparable information about the soil
and rock against which the structure will react it is necessary
to understand the geological processes which formed the soils
and rocks, this being the only way to reveal their 'design', and
the nature of the materials of which they are composed.
Prospecting is the first stage of the geological analysis of
a territory which, literally mean to look out for; search for.
There are many methods and types of instruments used in
geophysical surveys. Technologies used for geophysical
surveys include:
 Seismic methods, such as reflection seismology,
seismic refraction, and seismic tomography.
 Seismoelectrical method
 Geodesy and gravity techniques, including
gravimetry and gravity gradiometry.
 Magnetic techniques, including aeromagnetic
surveys and magnetometers.
 Electrical techniques, including electrical
resistivity tomography, induced polarization,
spontaneous potential and marine control source
electromagnetic (mCSEM) or EM seabed logging.
 Electromagnetic methods, such as
magnetotellurics, ground penetrating radar and
transient/time-domain electromagnetics, surface
nuclear magnetic resonance (also known as
magnetic resonance sounding).
 Borehole geophysics, also called well logging.
 Remote sensing techniques, including
hyperspectral.
>Reflection seismology is a method of exploration
geophysics that uses the principles of seismology to
estimate the properties of the Earth's subsurface from
reflected seismic waves.
*The seismic testing is carried out by a specially
configured truck (called a vibroseis truck) that lowers a
plate onto the surface. This plate generates an acoustic
sound signal that is transmitted into the earth's surface
which then reflects off the various geological layers.
>Seismic tomography is a technique for imaging the
subsurface of the Earth with seismic waves produced by
earthquakes or explosions.
>Seismic refraction is a geophysical principle governed
by Snell's Law. Used in the fields of engineering geology,
geotechnical engineering and exploration geophysics,
seismic refraction traverses are performed using a
seismograph(s) and/or geophone(s), in an array and an
energy source. The seismic refraction method utilizes
the refraction of seismic waves on geologic layers and
rock/soil units in order to characterize the subsurface
geologic conditions and geologic structure.
>The seismoelectrical method (which is different from
the electroseismic physical principle) is based on the
generation of electromagnetic fields in soils and rocks
by seismic waves. This technique is still under
development and in the future it may have applications
like detecting and characterizing fluids in the
underground by their electrical properties, among
others, usually related to fluids (porosity, transmissivity,
physical properties).
>Physical geodesy is the study of the physical properties
of the gravity field of the Earth, the geopotential, with a
view to their application in geodesy.
>Gravimetry is the measurement of the strength of a
gravitational field. Gravimetry may be used when either
the magnitude of gravitational field or the properties of
matter responsible for its creation are of interest.
>Gravity gradiometry is the study and measurement of
variations in the acceleration due to gravity. The gravity
gradient is the spatial rate of change of gravitational
acceleration.
Magnetism is a class of physical phenomena that are mediated
by magnetic fields. Electric currents and the magnetic
moments of elementary particles give rise to a magnetic field,
which acts on other currents and magnetic moments.
>An aeromagnetic survey is a common type of geophysical
survey carried out using a magnetometer aboard or towed
behind an aircraft. The principle is similar to a magnetic
survey carried out with a hand-held magnetometer, but
allows much larger areas of the Earth's surface to be covered
quickly for regional reconnaissance. The aircraft typically flies
in a grid-like pattern with height and line spacing determining
the resolution of the data.
>A magnetometer is a device that measures magnetism—the
direction, strength, or relative change of a magnetic field at a
particular location. The measurement of the magnetization of
a magnetic material is an example. A compass is one such
device, one that measures the direction of an ambient
magnetic field, in this case, the Earth's magnetic field.
>Electrical resistivity tomography (ERT) or electrical
resistivity imaging (ERI) is a geophysical technique for
imaging sub-surface structures from electrical resistivity
measurements made at the surface, or by electrodes in one or
more boreholes. If the electrodes are suspended in the
boreholes, deeper sections can be investigated. A related
geophysical method, induced polarization, measures the
transient response and aims to determine the subsurface
chargeability properties.
>Induced polarization (IP) is a geophysical imaging technique
used to identify the electrical chargeability of subsurface
materials, such as ore.
>Spontaneous potential (SP), also called self potential, is a
naturally occurring electric potential difference in the Earth,
measured by an electrode relative to a fixed reference
electrode. Spontaneous potentials are often measured down
boreholes for formation evaluation in the oil and gas industry,
and they can also be measured along the Earth's surface for
mineral exploration or groundwater investigation. The
phenomenon and its application to geology was first
recognized by Conrad Schlumberger, Marcel Schlumberger,
and E.G. Leonardon in 1931, and the first published examples
were from Romanian oil fields.
Electromagnetism is a branch of physics involving the study
of the electromagnetic force, a type of physical interaction
that occurs between electrically charged particles.
>Magnetotellurics (MT) is an electromagnetic geophysical
method for inferring the earth's subsurface electrical
conductivity from measurements of natural geomagnetic and
geoelectric field variation at the Earth's surface.
>Ground-penetrating radar (GPR) is a geophysical method
that uses radar pulses to image the subsurface. This
nondestructive method uses electromagnetic radiation in the
microwave band of the radio spectrum, and detects the
reflected signals from subsurface structures.
>Transient electromagnetics, is a geophysical
exploration technique in which electric and magnetic
fields are induced by transient pulses of electric current
and the subsequent decay response measured.

>Surface nuclear magnetic resonance (SNMR), also

known as magnetic resonance Sounding (MRS), is a
geophysical technique specially designed for
hydrogeology. It is based on the principle of nuclear
magnetic resonance (NMR) and measurements can be
used to indirectly estimate the water content of
saturated and unsaturated zones in the earth's
subsurface. SNMR is used to estimate aquifer properties,
including the quantity of water contained in the aquifer,
porosity, and hydraulic conductivity.

Well logging, also known as borehole logging is the

practice of making a detailed record (a well log) of the
geologic formations penetrated by a borehole. The log
may be based either on visual inspection of samples
brought to the surface (geological logs) or on physical
measurements made by instruments lowered into the
hole (geophysical logs). Some types of geophysical well GENERAL GEOLOGY
logs can be done during any phase of a well's history:
GROUND WATER
drilling, completing, producing, or abandoning. Well
logging is performed in boreholes drilled for the oil and WHAT IS GROUNDWATER?
gas, groundwater, mineral and geothermal exploration,
as well as part of environmental and geotechnical Groundwater is used for drinking water by more than
studies. 50 percent of the people in the United States, including almost
everyone who lives in rural areas. The largest use for
groundwater is to irrigate crops.
Remote sensing is the acquisition of information about
an object or phenomenon without making physical
contact with the object and thus in contrast to on-site
observation, especially the Earth. Remote sensing is
used in numerous fields, including geography, land
surveying and most Earth science disciplines ; it also has
military, intelligence, commercial, economic, planning,
and humanitarian applications.

>Hyperspectral imaging, like other spectral imaging,

collects and processes information from across the
electromagnetic spectrum. The goal of hyperspectral The area where water fills the aquifer is called the
imaging is to obtain the spectrum for each pixel in the saturated zone (or saturation zone). The top of this zone is
image of a scene, with the purpose of finding objects, called the water table. The water table may be located only a
identifying materials, or detecting processes. There are foot below the ground’s surface or it can sit hundreds of feet
three general branches of spectral imagers. There are down.
push broom scanners and the related whisk broom
scanners, which read images over time, band sequential
scanners, which acquire images of an area at different
wavelengths, and snapshot hyperspectral imaging,
which uses a staring array to generate an image in an
instant.

Aquifers are typically made up of gravel, sand,

sandstone, or fractured rock, like limestone. Water can move
through these materials because they have large connected
spaces that make them permeable. The speed at which
groundwater flows depends on the size of the spaces in the
soil or rock and how well the spaces are connected.
 Groundwater can be found almost everywhere.
The water table may be deep or shallow; and may rise or
fall depending on many factors. Heavy rains or melting
snow may cause the water table to rise, or heavy
pumping of groundwater supplies may cause the water
table to fall.
Groundwater supplies are replenished,
or recharged, by rain and snow melt that seeps down
into the cracks and crevices beneath the land's surface.
In some areas of the world, people face serious water
shortages because groundwater is used faster than it is
naturally replenished. In other areas groundwater is polluted
by human activities.
Water in aquifers is brought to the surface naturally
through a spring or can be discharged into lakes and streams.
Groundwater can also be extracted through a well drilled into
the aquifer. A well is a pipe in the ground that fills with
groundwater. This water can be brought to the surface by a
pump. Shallow wells may go dry if the water table falls below
the bottom of the well. Some wells, called artesian wells, do
not need a pump because of natural pressures that force the
water up and out of the well.
In areas where material above the aquifer is
permeable, pollutants can readily sink into groundwater
supplies. Groundwater can be polluted by landfills, septic
tanks, leaky underground gas tanks, and from overuse of
fertilizers and pesticides. If groundwater becomes polluted, it
will no longer be safe to drink.