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Geology For Mining Engineeris PDF
Geology For Mining Engineeris PDF
Prof.Dr.Kadir DİRİK
Lecture Notes
2014
THE SCIENCE OF GEOLOGY
GEOLOGY is the study of the Earth, including the materials that it is made of, the
physical and chemical changes that occur on its surface and in its interior, and
the history of the planet and its life forms.
Most of the Earth is solid rock, surrounded by the hydrosphere, the biosphere, and the
atmosphere. Prof.Dr.Kadir Dirik Lecture Notes
Most of the Earth is composed of rocks. Rocks, in turn, are composed of minerals
There are two processes acting on the earth namely internal and external
processes
INTERNAL PROCESSES
Processes that originate deep in the Earth’s interior are called internal
processes. These are the driving forces that raise mountains, cause
earthquakes, and produce volcanic eruptions.
SURFACE PROCESSES
Surface processes are all of those processes that sculpt the Earth’s surface.
Most surface processes are driven by water, although wind, ice, and gravity are
also significant.
The hydrosphere includes water in streams, wetlands, lakes, and oceans; in the
atmosphere; and frozen in glaciers. It also includes ground water present in soil
and rock to a depth of at least 2 kilometers.
Prof.Dr.Kadir Dirik Lecture Notes
THE ATMOSPHERE
The atmosphere is a mixture of gases, mostly nitrogen and oxygen. It is held to the Earth
by gravity and thins rapidly with altitude. Ninety‐nine percent is concentrated within 30
kilometers of the Earth’s surface, but a few traces remain even 10,000 kilometers above
the surface.
THE BIOSPHERE
The biosphere is the thin zone near the Earth’s surface that is inhabited by life. It
includes the uppermost solid Earth, the hydrosphere, and the lower parts of the
atmosphere. Land plants grow on the Earth’s surface, with roots penetrating at most a
few meters into soil.
Animals live on the surface, fly a kilometer or two above it, or burrow a few meters
underground. Sea life also concentrates near the ocean surface, where sunlight is
available. Some aquatic communities live on the deep sea floor, bacteria live in rock to
depths of a few kilometers, and a few windblown microorganisms are found at heights
of 10 kilometers or more. But even at these extremes, the biosphere is a very thin layer
at the Earth’s surface.
(a) Mercury is a small planet close to the Sun. Consequently, most of the lighter elements
have long since been boiled off into space, and today the surface is solid and rocky. (b)
Jupiter, on the other hand, is composed mainly of gases and liquids, with a small
Prof.Dr.Kadir Dirik Lecture Notes solid core.
(a) The early Earth was probably of uniform
Composition and density throughout,
(b) Heating of the early Earth reached the
melting point of iron and nickel, which, being
denser than silicate minerals, settled to the Earh’s
center. At the same time, the lighter silicates
flowed upward to form the mantle and the crust.
(c) In this way, a differentiated Earth formed,
consisting of a dense iron‐nickel core, an iron‐rich
silicate mantle, and a silicate crust with continents
and ocean basin
Jumps in density between Earth’s major layers caused by changes in their chemical
composition Prof.Dr.Kadir Dirik Lecture Notes
Continents float high because they are made of rocks with lower densities than rocks of the
mantle or oceanic crust
Mid‐oceanic ridge
Ocean
Trench
Subduction
Continental Oceanic
lithosphere lithosphere
(Monroe&Wicander, 2005)
18
Prof.Dr.Kadir Dirik Lecture Notes
Continental‐ Continental‐
Mid‐oceanic ridge Continental Trench
Oceanic Oceanic‐
Divergent convergent convergent Oceanic
Divergent
plate boundary
Transform plate boundary plate boundary plate boundary convergent
plate boundary plate
boundary
Upwelling
Asthenosphere
Upwelling (Monroe&Wicander, 2005)
Lithosphere
An idealized cross section illustrating the relationship between lithosphere and underlying asthenosphere and the three
principal types of boundaries convergent (yaklaşan), divergent (uzaklaşan) and transform (transform).
19
Prof.Dr.Kadir Dirik Lecture Notes
Prof.Dr.Kadir Dirik Lecture Notes
Prof.Dr.Kadir Dirik Lecture Notes
Prof.Dr.Kadir Dirik Lecture Notes
Prof.Dr.Kadir Dirik Lecture Notes
A schematic view of the
interior of the Earth
Jumps in density between Earth’s major layers caused by changes in their chemical
composition Prof.Dr.Kadir Dirik Lecture Notes
Most of the Earth is composed of rocks. Rocks, in turn, are composed of minerals
Elements and Atoms
All matter is made up of chemical elements, each of which composed of incredibly small
particles called atoms. Atoms are the smallest units of matter that retain the characteristics
of an element.
The Structure of Atoms
At the center of every atom is a dense nucleus
containing two particles: protons and neutrons.
A proton has a positive electric charge of +1.
A neutron is electrically neutral‐that is, uncharged.
Atoms of the same chemical element may have
Different number of neutrons but the number of
Protons are same.
These atoms are named as isotopes.
Chemical Reactions
covalent bond
Cleavage in four
Cleavage in two
directions
directions at right
angles
Cleavage in six
directions
Cleavage in three
directions at right
angles
Mineral’s crystal habit is the shape in which its individual crystals of aggregates of crystal
grow.