Eurasian nuthatch

The Eurasian nuthatch or wood nuthatch (Sitta europaea) is

a small passerine bird found throughout the Palearctic and in Eurasian nuthatch
Europe, where its name is the nuthatch. Like other nuthatches,
it is a short-tailed bird with a long bill, blue-grey upperparts
and a black eye-stripe. It is a vocal bird with a repeated loud
dwip call. There are more than 20 subspecies in three main
groups; birds in the west of the range have orange-buff
underparts and a white throat, those in Russia have whitish
underparts, and those in the east have a similar appearance to
European birds, but lack the white throat.

Its preferred habitat is mature deciduous or mixed woodland

with large, old trees, preferably oak. Pairs hold permanent S. e. caesia in Central Europe
territories, and nest in tree holes, usually old woodpecker nests,
but sometimes natural cavities. If the entrance to the hole is too 0:00 / 0:00
large, the female plasters it with mud to reduce its size, and
often coats the inside of the cavity too. The 6–9 red-speckled
Song recorded in Surrey, England
white eggs are laid on a deep base of pine or other wood chips.

The Eurasian nuthatch eats mainly insects, particularly 0:00 / 0:00

caterpillars and beetles, although in autumn and winter its diet
is supplemented with nuts and seeds. The young are fed mainly
on insects, with some seeds, food items mainly being found on Call recorded in Surrey, England
tree trunks and large branches. The nuthatch can forage when
Conservation status
descending trees head first, as well as when climbing. It readily
visits bird tables, eating fatty man-made food items as well as
seeds. It is an inveterate hoarder, storing food year-round. Its
main natural predator is the Eurasian sparrowhawk.
Least Concern (IUCN 3.1)[1]
Fragmentation of woodland can lead to local losses of breeding
birds, but the species' range is still expanding. It has a large Scientific classification
population and huge breeding area, and is therefore classified
Kingdom: Animalia
by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN)
as being of least concern. Phylum: Chordata
Class: Aves
Order: Passeriformes
Contents
Family: Sittidae
Taxonomy
Subspecies Genus: Sitta

Description Species: S. europaea

Voice Binomial name
Distribution and habitat Sitta europaea
Behaviour Linnaeus, 1758
Breeding
 Feeding
Predators and parasites
Status
Notes
References
Cited texts
Range of S. europaea
External links
Approximate range

Taxonomy
The nuthatches are a family of similar-looking birds with short tails and wings, compact bodies and longish
pointed bills. They have grey or bluish upperparts, a black eyestripe and strong feet. All are in the single
genus Sitta.[2] Within the genus, the Eurasian nuthatch forms a superspecies with the chestnut-vented,
Indian, chestnut-bellied and Kashmir nuthatches and has in the past been considered conspecific with all of
these.[3]

The Eurasian nuthatch was described by Linnaeus in his Systema naturae in 1758 under its current scientific
name.[4] Sitta is derived from the Ancient Greek name for this bird, σίττη, sittē,[5][6] and the species name,
europaea, is Latin for "European".[7] "Nuthatch", first recorded in 1350, is derived from "nut" and a word
probably related to "hack", since these birds hack at nuts they have wedged into crevices.[8]

The fossil record for nuthatches is sparse, and in Europe is limited to the extinct Sitta senogalliensis from
the Lower Miocene in Italy and somewhat later material from France; the family appears to be of relatively
recent origin.[2]

Subspecies

There are more than 20 subspecies, but the precise number is disputed. These taxa can be divided into three
main groups; these may have been geographically isolated from each other until relatively recently. Birds of
intermediate appearance occur where the group ranges overlap.[9]

Subspecies[3]
Subspecies
Appearance Range Subspecies[a]
group
Most of Europe, S. e. caesia, S. e. hispaniensis, S. e. cisalpina,
Buff breast,
caesia group North Africa, S. e. levantina, S. e. persica, S. e. rubiginosa,
white throat
Middle East S. e. caucasica
S. e. europaea, S. e. asiatica, S. e. arctica,
Scandinavia and
S. e. baicalensis, S. e. albifrons, S. e. sakhalinensis,
europaea Russia east to
White breast S. e. takatsukasai, S. e. clara, S. e. amurensis,
group Japan and
S. e. hondoensis, S. e. roseilia, S. e. bedfordi,
northern China
S. e. seorsa
sinensis Buff breast South and east
S. e. sinensis, S. e. formosana
group and throat China, Taiwan

The large, white-breasted S. e. arctica of north east Siberia is distinctive in appearance and genetically, and
may be another subspecies group or even a separate species.[3]
Description
The adult male of the nominate subspecies, S. e. europaea is 14 cm (5.5 in)
long with a 22.5–27 cm (8.9–10.6 in) wingspan.[10] It weighs 17–28 g (0.6–
1 oz). It has blue-grey upperparts, a black eye-stripe and whitish throat and
underparts. The flanks and lower belly are orange-red, mottled with white
on the undertail. The stout bill is dark grey with a paler area on the base of
the lower mandible, the iris is dark brown and the legs and feet are pale
brown or greyish.[3] Most other members of the S. e. europaea group differ
only in detail from the nominate form, often with respect to the hue of the
underparts,[9] but S. e. arctica is quite distinctive. It is large, pale, has a
white forehead and a reduced eye-stripe, and it has more white in the tail
and wings than any other subspecies.[11] Nuthatches move on trees with
short leaps, and do not use their tails for support. In flight, they have a
Male S. e. caesia in Poland
characteristic appearance, with a pointed head, round wings and a short,
square tail. Their flight is fast, with wings closed between beats, and is
usually of short duration.[10]

S. e. caesia, the most widespread of the western subspecies, has

orange-buff underparts except for a white throat and cheeks. The
other western forms mainly differ in the exact shade of the
underparts, although some southeastern forms also show a white
forehead and supercilium. S. e. sinensis and S. e. formosana, of
China and Taiwan respectively, have buff underparts like the western
races, but have buff, instead of white, throats.[9]

The female is similar in appearance to the male, but may be Female S. e. europaea in Sweden
identified by her slightly paler upperparts, a browner eyestripe and a
more washed-out tone to the flanks and lower belly.[3] In the eastern
form, S. e. asiatica, some males have buff underparts like the
female, and birds with this appearance are difficult to sex in the
field.[9] Young birds resemble the female, although their plumage is
duller and they have paler legs.[3] Individuals can be reliably sexed
as female from about 12 days old by their paler and buffer flanks, or,
in some white-breasted subspecies, by the creamier hue of their
underparts.[12]

Adults have a complete moult after breeding which takes about 80

days, starting from late May onwards and finishing by late
September. The moult period for Siberian birds is more compressed,
running from June to mid-September. Fledged juveniles moult some
of their wing coverts when they are about eight weeks old.[9] Intermediate between S. e. europaea
and S. e. caesia in eastern Germany
In much of its range, Eurasian is the only nuthatch present. In
southeast Europe and southwest Asia, the western and eastern rock
nuthatches are larger and paler than the Eurasian species. They also
lack white spots in the tail and are usually found in a different, stony habitat, and Krüper's nuthatch is small
and has a black cap and reddish breast patch. In southwest China, the chestnut-vented nuthatch is very
similar to the European bird, but is darker above, has less white on the face and has greyer underparts.[9]

Voice
The Eurasian nuthatch calls frequently, usually with a loud, sharp dwip normally repeated twice, sometimes
more often if excited. It has a shrill sirrrr or tsi-si-si alarm call, and a thin tsit pre-flight call. The song is a
slow whistled pee-pee-pee with many variants, including a faster version, and may be intermingled with the
call.[3]

The song of the distinctive S. e. arctica is said to be noticeably different from that of its relatives, which
would help to establish whether it is a full species, but there has been insufficient research into its
vocalizations.[13]

Distribution and habitat

The Eurasian nuthatch's breeding range extends across
temperate Eurasia from Great Britain (but not Ireland) to
Japan.[9] It is found between the 16–20 °C (61–68 °F) July
isotherms,[10] north to about latitude 64°N in western Russia
and 69°N in Siberia. It breeds south to the Mediterranean in
Europe, although it is absent from the islands, other than
Sicily, and in most of Russia the southern boundary is around
54–55°N. In the east, the range includes most of China and
Taiwan and much of Korea.[9] It has occurred as a vagrant in
Lebanon[1] and the Channel Islands, and the nominate race
has been recorded a few times in Finland where S. e. asiatica S. e europaea in Sweden
is the normal form.[10]

Most populations are sedentary, apart from some post-breeding dispersal of young birds, and there is a
reluctance to cross even short stretches of open water. Northern and eastern breeders are dependent on the
cones of the Siberian stone pine, and if the crop fails many birds of the S. e. asiatica subspecies may move
west into northern Sweden and Finland in autumn, sometimes staying to breed. Siberian S. e. arctica may
make more limited movements south and east in winter, and S. e. amurensis, from southeast Russia, is
regular in winter in Korea.[9]

The preferred habitat is mature woodland with large, old trees,

which provide extensive growth for foraging and nesting holes. In
Europe, deciduous or mixed forest is favoured, particularly when
containing oak. Parks, old orchards and other wooded habitats may
be occupied as long as they have at least a 1 ha (2.5 acres) block of
suitable trees. Particularly in mountains, old spruce and pine forests
are used, and pine is also favoured in Taiwan. In most of Russia,
conifers are used for nesting, but population densities are relatively
low. Moroccan birds nest in oak, Atlas cedar and fir. Unusual
habitats include dwarf juniper in Mongolia and rocky terrain in a
Ancient deciduous woodland is a
limited part of southern Siberia.[3] favoured habitat.

The Eurasian nuthatch is primarily a lowland bird in the north of its

range, but reaches the tree-line in Switzerland, at 1,200 m (3,900 ft)
or higher, and breeds occasionally at 1,800–2,100 m (5,900–6,900 ft) in Austria. It breeds at similar levels in
the mountains of Turkey, the Middle East and Central Asia. It is mainly a mountain bird in southern Japan,
760–2,100 m (2,490–6,890 ft), and Taiwan, 800–3,300 m (2,600–10,800 ft), but in southern China, the
chestnut-vented nuthatch is the highland species, with the Eurasian species at lower levels.[3]

Behaviour
Breeding

Nuthatches are monogamous, and a pair occupies a breeding territory in

which it spends the winter as well.[3] Territory sizes range from 2–10 ha (5–
25 acres) in Europe to an average of 30.2 ha (75 acres) in the sub-optimal
conifer forests of Siberia.[15] The male sings to defend his territory and
attract a mate. Both sexes have a courtship display with a floating, quivering
flight, and the male will also make circular flights with a spread tail and
raised head. He will also feed the female while courting her.[10] Despite the
lifelong pairing, genetic research in Germany showed that at least 10% of
the young in the study area were fathered by another male, usually from an
adjacent territory.[16]

The nest is in a tree cavity, usually an old woodpecker hole, but sometimes Nuthatches are more
of natural origin. Occasionally the female will enlarge an existing hole in reluctant to occupy a nest
rotten wood. The nest site is typically 2–20 m (7–66 ft) above the ground box than other tree hole
and has a deep base of pine bark or chips of other wood, rarely nesting birds.[14]
supplemented with dry plant material. If the entrance to the hole is too large,
it is plastered with mud, clay and sometimes dung to make it
smaller.[3] A small entrance and large interior, together with the use
of a deep layer of wood chips in which to bury the eggs and small
young when the adults leave the nest, may be adaptations to reduce
the chance of predation. Nests with small entrance holes are most
successful.[17] Locally, a small entrance may make it less likely that
the nest will be taken over by common starlings.[3][14] The female
undertakes most of the work, and often plasters the inside of the
cavity too, taking up to four weeks to complete the construction. A
nest is often re-used in subsequent years.[3]
Egg
The clutch is usually 6–9 red-speckled white eggs, although up to
13 eggs are sometimes laid. They average 19.5 mm × 14.4 mm
(0.77 in × 0.57 in)[9][b] and weigh 2.3 g (0.081 oz) of which 6% is shell.[18] The female incubates the eggs
for 13–18 days to hatching, and broods the altricial downy chicks until they fledge 20–26 days later. Both
adults feed the chicks in the nest and continue after they fledge until they become independent in about 8–
14 days. Normally only one brood is raised each year.[9][18] When nest boxes are used, the clutch size and
number of fledglings are greater in larger boxes. For reasons that are unclear, there is no link between cavity
size and nesting outcomes for natural holes.[19]

The sedentary nature of this species means that juveniles can only acquire a territory by finding a vacant
area or replacing a dead adult. In Europe, young birds almost always move to unoccupied habitat, but in the
larger territories of Siberia most live within the breeding range of an adult pair.[15]

The adult annual survival rate across most of the range is around 51%,[15][18] and a small Belgian study
found a 25% local survival rate for juveniles.[20] The typical lifespan is two years and the maximum known
age for a wild bird is 12 years 11 months in the UK.[21] There is also a Swiss longevity record of 10 years
6 months.[22]

Feeding
The Eurasian nuthatch eats mainly insects, particularly caterpillar
and beetles. In autumn and winter, the diet is supplemented with nuts
and seeds, hazel nuts and beech mast being preferred. The young are
fed mainly on the insects favoured by their parents, with some seeds.
Food items are found mainly on tree trunks and large branches, but
smaller branches may also be investigated, and food may be taken
from the ground, especially outside the breeding season. Nuthatches
can forage when descending trees head first, as well as when
climbing. Some prey is caught in flight, and a nuthatch will remove
bark or rotten wood to reach insects, although it cannot chisel into Play media
healthy wood like a woodpecker. A pair may temporarily join a Feeding at a bird table in winter
mixed-species foraging flock as it passes near their territory.[3] The (view high resolution version)
Eurasian nuthatch readily visits bird tables and bird feeders in
winter, eating human-made food items such as fat, cheese, butter and
bread.[14][23] It has even been recorded as taking slaughterhouse offal.[23] Sizeable hard food items like nuts
or large insects are wedged into crevices in tree bark and smashed with the strong bill.[24]

Plant food is stored year-round, but mainly in autumn. Individual seeds are hidden in cracks in bark,
occasionally in walls or in the ground. The food item is usually concealed with lichen, moss or small pieces
of bark. The cached food is retrieved in cold weather. Siberian birds store the seeds of the Siberian stone
pine, sometimes hoarding enough to last a whole year.[3] Cached food may sometimes include non-plant
material such as pieces of bread, caterpillars and grubs, the larvae being incapacitated by battering.[25]
Hoarding is a long-term strategy, stored food items only being consumed when fresh food is hard to find,
sometimes up to three months after caching. Birds with good stored food supplies are fitter that those with
more limited resources.[26] Beech mast crops vary widely from year to year. Where beech mast is an
important part of the diet, adult survival rates are largely unaffected in years with a poor mast crop, but the
number of juvenile birds falls in the autumn as they are lost through starvation or emigration.[20] In areas
where common hazel is the prevalent tree species, there is a similar pattern of adult survival and loss of
juvenile birds in years with poor nut production.[27]

Predators and parasites

Across most of its European range, the most important predator of the
Eurasian nuthatch is the sparrowhawk.[28][29] Other species known to prey
on this nuthatch include the northern goshawk,[30] hobby,[31] tawny owl,[32]
pygmy owl and least weasel.[33][34] A Swedish study showed that 6.2% of
the nuthatch nests in their study area were raided by predators. The
perpetrators were not identified, but the main single predator of tit nests in
the same study was the great spotted woodpecker.[35]

Common starlings will take over Eurasian nuthatch nest holes, reducing
their breeding success. This is most likely to occur if the nest is high in a
tree and there is a good local breeding density of the nuthatch.[35]
Introduced ring-necked parakeets may also compete with Eurasian
nuthatches for nesting holes. The parakeets tend to occur in fragmented
urban woodlands, while nuthatches prefer large old oak woodlands, which
The Eurasian sparrowhawk
reduces the level of competition. Ornithologists conducting a 2010 Belgian
is the main predator of the
study suggested that the problem was not so severe as to warrant culling of
Eurasian nuthatch.
the parakeets.[36]
Mites of the genus Ptilonyssus, such as P. sittae, have been found in the Eurasian nuthatch's nasal
cavities.[37][38] Intestinal worms include the nematodes Tridentocapillaria parusi and Pterothominx
longifilla.[39] Small studies in Slovakia and Spain found no blood parasites, but a larger Spanish survey
found some evidence of Plasmodium infection.[40][41][42]

Status
The European population of the Eurasian nuthatch has been
estimated as 22.5–57 million birds, suggesting a global total of 45.9–
228 million individuals. China, Taiwan, Korea, Japan and Russia
each have between 10,000 and 100,000 breeding pairs.[1] The known
breeding area is about 23.3 million km2 (9 million sq mi),[43] which
is a large proportion of the potential suitable habitat,[44] and the
population appears to be stable. The large numbers and huge
breeding range mean that this species is classified by the
International Union for Conservation of Nature as being of least Male S. e. caesia eating sunflower
concern.[1] seeds in Poland

The Eurasian nuthatch is common throughout much of its range,

although densities are lower in the far north and in coniferous forests. Annual numbers in Siberia fluctuate
depending on the availability of pine cones from year to year.[9] In recent decades, the nuthatch has
colonised Scotland and the Netherlands, and expanded its range in Wales, northern England, Norway and
the High Atlas mountain range in North Africa. S. e. asiatica breeds intermittently in Finland and northern
Sweden following irruptions. Because large trees are essential, felling or fragmentation of old woodland can
lead to local declines or losses.[10]

Notes
a. Harrop and Quinn lump S. e. baicalensis, S. e. takatsukasai, S. e. clara and S. e. hondoensis
into S. e. asiatica and S. e. formosana into S. e. sinensis[9]
b. S. e. caesia

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42. Martinez-de la Puente, Josué; Martinez, Javier; Rivero-de Aguilar, Juan; Herrero, Jessica;
Merino, Santiago (2011). "On the specificity of avian blood parasites: revealing specific and
generalist relationships between haemosporidians and biting midges" (http://digital.csic.es/bitst
ream/10261/60955/1/molecular.pdf) (PDF). Molecular Ecology. 20: 3275–3287.
doi:10.1111/j.1365-294x.2011.05136.x (https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1365-294x.2011.05136.x).
PMID 21627703 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21627703).
43. "BirdLife International Species factsheet: Wood Nuthatch Sitta europaea" (http://www.birdlife.or
g/datazone/speciesfactsheet.php?id=6880). BirdLife International. Retrieved 23 April 2014.
44. Menon, Shaily; Islam, Zafar-Ul; Soberón, Jorge; Peterson, A. Townsend (2008). "Preliminary
analysis of the ecology and geography of the Asian nuthatches (Aves: Sittidae)" (https://works.
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Cited texts
Atkinson, Carter T.; Thomas, Nancy J.; Hunter, D. Bruce (2008). Parasitic Diseases of Wild
Birds. London: Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 978-0-8138-2081-1.
Enoksson, Bodil (1993). "Nuthatch". In Gibbons, David Wingham; Reid, James B.; Chapman,
Robert A. (eds.). The New Atlas of Breeding Birds in Britain and Ireland: 1988–1991. London:
T & A D Poyser. ISBN 0-85661-075-5.
 Harrap, Simon; Quinn, David (1996). Tits, Nuthatches and Treecreepers. London: Christopher
Helm. ISBN 0-7136-3964-4.
Jedrzejewska, Bogumila; Jedrzejewski, Wlodzimierz (1998). Predation in Vertebrate
Communities: The Bialowieza Primeval Forest as a Case Study. Berlin: Springer. ISBN 978-3-
540-64138-4.
Jobling, James A. (2010). The Helm Dictionary of Scientific Bird Names (https://archive.org/det
ails/Helm_Dictionary_of_Scientific_Bird_Names_by_James_A._Jobling). London: Christopher
Helm. ISBN 978-1-4081-2501-4.
Linnaeus, Carl (1758). Systema naturae per regna tria naturae, secundum classes, ordines,
genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis. Tomus I. Editio decima,
reformata (https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/bibliography/542#/summary) (in Latin). Holmiae
[Stockholm]: Laurentii Salvii.
Matthysen, Erik; Quinn, David (1998). The Nuthatches. London: Poyser. ISBN 978-0-85661-
101-8.
Mullarney, Killian; Svensson, Lars; Zetterstrom, Dan; Grant, Peter (1999). Collins Bird Guide.
London: Collins. ISBN 0-00-219728-6.
Snow, David; Perrins, Christopher M., eds. (1998). The Birds of the Western Palearctic
(concise edition (2 volumes) ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-854099-1.

External links
Ageing and sexing (PDF; 3.2 MB) by Javier Blasco-Zumeta & Gerd-Michael Heinze (https://we
b.archive.org/web/20141202063605/http://aulaenred.ibercaja.es/wp-content/uploads/395_Nuth
atchSeuropaea.pdf)
"Eurasian nuthatch media" (http://www.hbw.com/ibc/species/eurasian-nuthatch-sitta-
europaea). Internet Bird Collection.
Eurasian nuthatch photo gallery (http://vireo.acnatsci.org/search.html?Form=Search&SEARCH
BY=Common&KEYWORDS=eurasian+nuthatch&showwhat=images&AGE=All&SEX=All&ACT
=All&Search=Search&VIEW=All&ORIENTATION=All&RESULTS=24) at VIREO (Drexel
University)
Sitta europaea (https://www.flickr.com/groups/birdguide/pool/tags/Sitta+europaea) in the Flickr:
Field Guide Birds of the World (https://www.flickr.com/groups/birdguide)

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