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Transformer Winding Losses Evaluation when Supplying Non Linear Load

Conference Paper · October 2009

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 Author manuscript, published in "The 44th International Universities' Power Engineering Conference - UPEC 2009, Glasgow :
United Kingdom (2009)"

Transformer Winding Losses Evaluation when

Supplying Non Linear Load
W. Frelin L. Berthet M. Petit J. C. Vannier
Electricité de France, Electricité de France, Department of Power and Department of Power and
1 avenue du Général de 1 avenue du Général de Energy Systems Energy Systems
Gaulle 92141 Clamart, Gaulle 92141 Clamart, SUPELEC, 3 rue Joliot Curie SUPELEC, 3 rue Joliot Curie
France France 91192 Gif-sur-Yvette, France 91192 Gif-sur-Yvette, France
frelin@crans.org Luc.berthet@edf.fr Marc.petit@supelec.fr Jean-claude.vannier@supelec.fr

Abstract- Nonlinear loads produce harmonic currents, which
induce additional losses in transformers and cause temperature
rise, especially in the windings. The estimation of winding eddy-
current loss, in the presence of harmonics, is based on the
knowledge of winding eddy-current loss at power frequency.
This paper deals with the transformer winding loss estimation
and gives a simplified winding resistance expression that takes
winding eddy-current into account and allows to estimate
associated losses. The impact of transformer winding
characteristics, as conductor size and layer number, on the
resistance variation with frequency is shown.
hal-00422449, version 1 - 7 Oct 2009
Posl is stray loss in components other than the windings.
Rac is AC winding resistance.
Rdc is DC winding resistance.
I is the RMS current
When a transformer supplies non linear loads, I2R increases
with the RMS current variation and winding eddy-current loss
increases with the square of the load current and the square of
the frequency. Equation (2) allows calculating winding eddy-
current loss through a proportionality factor applied to the

Index Terms-- Eddy-current, harmonics, Transformer,

winding losses.
I. INTRODUCTION
The growing use of power electronics devices in industry,
office and home equipment has led to study the impact of
harmonic distortion on power networks materials. Current and
voltage harmonics may cause a large number of problems for
electrical equipment:
- Malfunction of circuit breakers and electronic
equipment [1].
- Additional losses in motors, transformers and
conductors [2], [3].
- Additional heating due to these additional losses.
IEEE Std C57.110-1998 [4] was created to establish
uniform methods for determining the capability of
transformers to supply non linear loads. Transformer losses
are separated into no load loss (core loss) and load loss [4].
Load loss (Pll) is subdivided into I²R loss and stray loss due to
stray electromagnetic flux in the windings, core, core clamps,
magnetic shields, enclosure or tank walls, etc. The stray loss
is subdivided into winding eddy-current loss (Pec) and stray
loss in components other than the windings (Posl) as explained
in (1).
Pll = Pj + Pec + Posl = Rac ⋅ I 2 + Posl (1)
Where
Pll is load loss.
Pj=Rdc.I² is loss due to load current and dc resistance of the
windings.
Pec is winding eddy-current loss.
winding eddy-current loss at fundamental frequency [4]. The
reliance on the square of the frequency is recognized in this
expression with the h² term. This expression shows the
necessity to know fundamental eddy-current loss to determine
the harmonic impact of eddy-current loss on the transformer.
2
⎛ Ih ⎞
hmax
∑ ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⋅ h 2
h =1 ⎝ I 1 ⎠
where
PEC = PEC −o ⋅ Fhl Fhl = 2 (2)
hmax
⎛ Ih ⎞
∑ ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
h =1 ⎝ I1 ⎠
Where
Pec is winding eddy-current loss.
Pec-o is winding eddy-current loss at the measured current
and the power frequency.
Fhl is harmonic loss factor for winding eddy-current.
h is harmonic order.
Ih is the RMS current at harmonic frequency of order h.
I1 is the RMS current at fundamental frequency.
The aim of this paper is to give a winding resistance
expression, which takes winding eddy-current into account
and allows estimating PEC-o and then winding loss in presence
of harmonics. This analytical expression shows the impact of
transformer winding characteristics, as conductor size and
transformer winding geometry, on the resistance frequency
dependence. After theoretical results on a simple conducting
plate, the method to obtain the analytical expression of
winding resistance is developed. Finally, some numerical
results on two different transformers are presented to show
the impact of winding characteristics on the AC winding
resistance.
 II. THEORETICAL BACKGROUND The integration constants a1, a2 are determined from the
Fig. 1 shows a simple conducting plate, assumed to be known boundary conditions.
infinite in the y and z directions and carrying a sinusoidal
current density J in the y direction, with sinusoidal magnetic ⎧⎪h(a ) = h2 = a1e jka + a 2 e − jka
fields of constant amplitudes h1 and h2 outside the plate in the ⎨
z direction. ⎪⎩h(− a) = h1 = a1e − jka + a 2 e jka
z Hence, the magnetic field expression is

− h1 . sinh[ jk ( x − a )] + h2 . sinh[ jk ( x + a )]
→
J h( x ) =
sinh ( j 2ka ) (7)

The distribution of current density J is calculated from

Maxwell’s equations.
h1 h2 ∂H z
Jy = − (8)
∂x
-a O +a x A solution of this equation is of the form Jy=Re(j(x)ejωt),
thus equation (8) becomes :
e dh( x)
j ( x) = − (9)
dx
Fig. 1. Studied conducting plate.
Hence, the current density expression is
hal-00422449, version 1 - 7 Oct 2009

The distribution of magnetic field H in metals at relatively

low frequencies is described by the diffusion equation (3),
⎧ h . cosh[ jk (x − a )] − h2 . cosh[ jk ( x + a )]⎫
which is calculated from Maxwell’s equations. j ( x ) = jk ⎨ 1 ⎬ (10)
⎩ sinh ( j 2ka ) ⎭
∂H
∇ 2 H = μσ (3) The loss per square meter is obtained by integrating ρ.J2.
∂t
Where μ is the magnetic permeability and σ is the electrical 1 +a 2
conductivity. Pds = ρ ∫ j ( x) dx (11)
2 −a
Considering that the magnetic field is only with z Consequently, the Joule losses in the plate may be
component and as there are no variations in the y and z determined by the integral (11) and the current density
directions, the magnetic field equation can be written: expression (10) as follows

∂ 2H z ∂H z ωμσ ⎧ h12 + h2 2 2h h ⎫
= μσ (4) Pds = f1 (ϕ ) − 1 2 f 2 (ϕ )⎬
∂x 2
∂t ⎨ (12)
σ ⎩ 2 2 2 ⎭
A solution of this equation is of the form Hz=Re(h(x)ejωt), With
thus equation (4) becomes: 2
ϕ = eδ and δ=
ωμσ
d 2 h( x )
+ k 2 h( x ) = 0 (5)
dx 2 sinh(2ϕ ) + sin(2ϕ )
With f1 (ϕ ) = (13)
cosh(2ϕ ) − cos(2ϕ )
k 2 = − jωμσ
Where ω is the pulsation and j the complex number defined
by j² = -1.
cosh(ϕ ). sin(ϕ ) + sinh(ϕ ). cos(ϕ )
f 2 (ϕ ) = (14)
The equation (5) solution is cosh(2ϕ ) − cos(2ϕ )
Where e is the thickness of the plate and δ is the depth of
− jk x
h( x) = a1 e jk x
+ a2 e (6) penetration.
This expression can be rewritten as shown in equation (15).
 It can be seen that the two functions g1(φ) and g2(φ) give
2
⎧⎪ 2
⎫⎪ good results when the ratio between thickness and depth of
h2 h1 h1
P = ⎨(1 + 2 ). f1 (ϕ ) − 4 . f 2 (ϕ )⎬ (15) penetration is less than 1.4 (errors less than 5%).
ds 2σδ ⎪⎩ h2 h2 ⎪⎭
For conductors with small thickness compared to the depth Thus, the Joule losses in the plate can be expressed
of penetration (φ<<1), functions f1(φ) and f2(φ) can be according to (18) substituting f1(φ) and f2(φ) in equation (15)
approximated by g1(φ) and g2(φ) given in (16) and (17) by g1(φ) and g2(φ).
respectively.
1⎡ 4 ⎤ h
2
⎧⎪ ⎛ e ⎞ ⎛ 4(1 + α ) + 7α ⎞⎫⎪
4 2
f 1 (ϕ ) ≈ g 1 (ϕ ) = ⎢1 + ⋅ ϕ 4 + ε (ϕ 8 ) ⎥ (16) P = 2 ⎨(1 − α ) + ⎜ ⎟ ⎜⎜
2
⎟⎟⎬ (18)
ϕ ⎣ 45 ⎦ ds 2eσ ⎪⎩ ⎝δ ⎠ ⎝ 45 ⎠⎪⎭
⎡
h
1 7 8 ⎤ With α= 1
f 2 (ϕ ) ≈ g 2 (ϕ ) = ⎢1 − 90 ⋅ ϕ + ε (ϕ ) ⎥
4
(17) h2
2ϕ ⎣ ⎦

Fig. 2 shows comparison, between functions f1(φ), f2(φ) III. APPLICATION TO TRANSFORMER WINDINGS
and g1(φ), g2(φ) for different values of the ratio e/δ. Fig. 3
shows the relative error in per cent between the functions and For analysis, the structure of transformer windings can be
their approximations. approximated by a superposition of several conducting plates
[5]. Fig. 4 shows the geometry of MV/LV transformer with
12
the LV and MV windings respectively in the inner and in the
Function f1 outer. The curvature of the conductors, edge and end effects
are neglected.
hal-00422449, version 1 - 7 Oct 2009

Function g1
10
Function f2
Using ampere’s law, magnetic fields on both the left-hand
Function g2
8 side h1 and right-hand side h2 are respectively given by (19)
and (20) for layer m.
Function values

⎛ N ⎞ iˆ
6

h1 = (m − 1) ⋅ ⎜ ⎟ (19)
4
⎝ n ⎠d
2
⎛ N ⎞ iˆ
h2 = m ⋅ ⎜ ⎟ (20)
⎝ n ⎠d
0

-2 With
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2
Ratio e/ δ
m the layer number from the inner to the outer.
Fig. 2. Functions f1(φ), f2(φ), g1(φ) and g2(φ ) versus ratio e/δ.
N the total number of turns in the windings.
n the total number of layers in the windings.
140
î the peak current in a turn.
100*|f1-g1|/f1 d the height of windings.
100*|f2-g2|/f2
120
Thus, the power per unit length, according to the y
100 direction, dissipated in layer m (21) can be calculated using
Joule losses expression in a plate (18) multiplied by the height
80
of windings and magnetic fields expressions given by (19)
Error in %

and (20).
60

I 2 ⎡ ⎛ e ⎞ ⎛ m 2 m 4 ⎞⎤
2 4
40
⎛N⎞
Pm = ⎜ ⎟ ⋅ ⎢1 + ⎜ ⎟ ⎜⎜ − + ⎟⎟⎥ (21)
20 ⎝ n ⎠ σ ⋅ e ⋅ d ⎢⎣ ⎝ δ ⎠ ⎝ 3 3 45 ⎠⎥⎦
Total loss per unit length in transformer windings is then
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2 given by the sum of power dissipated in each layer (22).
Ratio e/ δ

I 2 ⎡ ⎛ e ⎞ 5n3 − n ⎤
Fig. 3. Error in per cent between functions f1(φ)& g1(φ) and f2(φ)& g2(φ) 2 4
n
⎛N⎞
versus ratio e/δ. P = ∑ Pm = ⎜ ⎟ ⎢n + ⎜ ⎟ ⎥
m =1 ⎝ n ⎠ σ ⋅ e ⋅ d ⎢⎣ ⎝ δ ⎠ 45 ⎦⎥ (22)
 conductors is less sensitive to frequency than winding
Magnetic core
resistance with rectangular conductors. Thus when a
transformer is supplying non linear loads, winding eddy-
current loss increase is much higher for rectangular
conductors. Moreover (24) calculated with the simplified
functions g1 and g2 gives a conservative result for transformer
d n°1 as soon as e/δ is greater than 1.4 (i.e. frequency greater
than 800 Hz in the present case).

In presence of harmonics, eddy-current loss PEC can be

calculated using resistance expression (24).

4
hmax
⎛ e ⎞ ⎛ n2 1 ⎞ 2
PEC = ∑ Rdc ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎜⎜ − ⎟⎟ I h (25)
LV winding layers MV winding layers
h =1 ⎝δh ⎠ ⎝ 9 45 ⎠

Eddy-current loss at the measured current I and power

Fig. 4. Geometry of MV/LV transformer. frequency, PEC-O, is
4
Introducing the DC resistance per unit length of the ⎛ e ⎞ ⎛ n2 1 ⎞ 2
conductor (23), the AC resistance per unit length can be PEC −o = Rdc ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎜⎜ − ⎟⎟ I (26)
identified in the expression of total losses per unit length in ⎝δR ⎠ ⎝ 9 45 ⎠
transformer winding (22). Eddy-current losses are represented Where
hal-00422449, version 1 - 7 Oct 2009

by the second term into brackets. Transformer geometry δh is the depth of penetration for harmonic h.
impact can be seen by the presence of layer number – n – and δR is the depth of penetration at the power frequency.
conductor thickness – e – in the expression.
Substituting (26) in (25), eddy-current loss expression can
2 be rewritten and gives the same result that the IEEE Std
n ⎛N⎞
Rdc = ⋅⎜ ⎟ (23) C57.110-1998 (2).
deσ ⎝n⎠
TABLE I
TRANSFORMER CHARACTERISTICS
P = Rac ⋅ I 2
Primary (MV) Secondary (LV) e/δ
⎡ ⎛ e ⎞ 4 ⎛ n 2 1 ⎞⎤ (24)
Transformer Copper, ∅0.8mm Copper, rectangular
2.5
with Rac = Rdc ⎢1 + ⎜ ⎟ ⎜⎜ − ⎟⎟⎥ n°1 21 layers Conductor 3.75*10mm²
at 2.5kHz
⎣⎢ ⎝ δ ⎠ ⎝ 9 45 ⎠⎦⎥
5400 turns 64 turns, 2 layers
Transformer Copper ∅ 0.75mm Copper sheet
0.13
n°2 19 layers 0.2*210mm²
at 2.5kHz
4417 turns 51 turns, 51 layers
IV. NUMERICAL APPLICATION
Generally, LV windings are made with rectangular or sheet 20
Transformer n°1 with g1 and g2 functions
conductors, while MV windings are made with small round 18 Transformer n°1 with f1 and f2 functions
conductors. Table I gives the winding characteristics of two 16
typical 100 kVA transformers which are used for numerical
14
application presented next. The ratio e/δ, given in the last
Rac/Rdc ratio

column, is calculated for secondary conductors at 2.5kHz. 12

10
As primary winding characteristics are almost the same, 8
winding ratio evolution is similar. The main difference
between the transformers is the secondary winding geometry 6

(Table I). 4

2
Then we present in Fig. 5 and Fig. 6 the Rac/Rdc ratio 0
evolution as a function of frequency for the secondary 0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500

windings of transformer n°1 and n°2 respectively. The ratio is frequency (Hz)
Fig. 5. Secondary winding Rac/Rdc ratio evolution as a function of frequency
either calculated with (24) using g1 and g2, or with f1 and f2. for transformers n°1 presented in table I, and using functions {g1, g2} -
Theses figures show that winding resistance with sheet equation (24) - or {f1, f2}.
 This paper gives a winding resistance expression which
1.12
Transformer n°2 with with g1 and g2 functions takes winding eddy-current into account and permits to
estimate winding losses at power frequency, PEC-0, and also in
1.1
presence of harmonics.
This expression shows the impact of the following winding
1.08
parameters: conductor thickness and layer number. This
Rac/Rdc ratio

expression also underline that transformers composed of thin

1.06 foil windings have winding eddy-current losses smaller than
transformer with rectangular conductors. Thus, transformers
1.04 with thin foil windings are less sensitive to harmonics. This
work also shows that the Fhl coefficient gives conservative
1.02 results for large conductors.
REFERENCES
1
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 [1] J. S. Subjak and J.S McQuilkin, “harmonics-causes, effects,
frequency (Hz) measurement, and analysis: An update,” IEEE Transactions on industry
Fig. 6. Secondary winding Rac/Rdc ratio evolution as a function of frequency application, vol. 26, no. 6, pp. 1034-1042, Nov./Dec. 1990.
for transformers n° 2 presented in table I, and using functions {g1, g2} - [2] F.L. Tofoli, A.S. Morais, C.A. Gallo, S.M.R. Sanhueza and A. de
equation (24) . Oliveira, “Analysis of losses in cables and transformers under quality
related issues,” 18th Applied Power Electronics Conference, vol.3, pp.
1521-1526, 2004.
The assumption that eddy-current losses in transformer [3] D. Lin, T. Batan, E.F. Fuchs and W.M. Grady,”Harmonic losses of
single phase induction motors under nonsinusoidal voltages”, IEEE
windings are proportional to the square of the frequency (25) Transactions on energy conversion, vol. 11, no.2, June 1996.
gives accurate results for small conductors or at low [4] IEEE Recommended Practice for Establishing Transformer Capability
When Supplying Nonsinusoidal Load Currents, IEEE Std C57.110-
hal-00422449, version 1 - 7 Oct 2009

frequency (e/δ < 1.4). For large conductors and at high

frequency (e/δ > 1.4), it leads to conservative results [7-8] as
shown in Fig. 5.
V. CONCLUSIONS
The Fhl coefficient [4] is generally used to determine
additional losses and capability of transformer when non
linear loads are present, but it is necessary to know
fundamental eddy-current loss to determine the harmonic
impact on loss increase in transformer.
1998, July 1998.
[5] P. L. Dowell, Effects of eddy currents in transformer windings, In Proc.
IEE, vol. 113, no 8, pp. 1387-1394, August 1966.
[6] J.P. Vandelac and P. D. Ziogas, “ A novel Approach for Minimising
High-Frequency Transformer Copper Losses”, IEEE Transactions on
power electronics, vol.3, no.3, july 1988.
[7] Sergey N. Makarov and Alexander E. Emanuel, Corrected Harmonic
Loss Factor for Transformers supplying Nonsinusoidal Load currents,
Proc. of the 9th International conferences on harmonics and Power
Quality, vol. 1, pp. 87-90, 2000.
[8] A.Elmoudi, M. Lehtonen and H. Nordman, Corrected Winding Eddy-
current Harmonic Loss Factor for transformers Subject to
Nonsinusoidal, IEEE Powertech, Russia, June 2005.

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