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• About the Instructor • About the Sponsor • Ask an Expert
Design Considerations of Water Features
Presented By: Simon Gardiner

Crystal Fountains
60 Snow Boulevard
Concord, ON L4K 4B3
Description: Provides an overview of the types of water features including design considerations for traditional and
sequenced solutions, as well as a discussion of the history and development of water features and the influences that
have impacted today’s designs.
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©2007 • Table of Contents Slide 2 of 102

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Section Title
Learning Objectives
Upon completing this course, you will be able to:
• Discuss the history of fountains and the influences that have impacted today’s
fountain designs
• State the design principles and considerations of water features required to

facilitate a successful installation
• Describe methods of minimizing the impact of mechanical and electrical components
• List the types and characteristics of various types of water features including
fountains, channels, vanishing edge pools, vertical water features, and sequenced
solutions

Table of Contents
History of Fountains 6
Water Feature Design Principles 26
Types of Water Features 58
Sequenced Solutions 80
Summary 100
Click on title to view

History of Fountains

What is a Fountain?
Originally, the word “Fountain” was used to

refer to a natural spring or source of water;
however, over time it has come to mean an
artificial structure that is designed to contain
and move water.
Potable water from a reliable source was one

of the first requirements of permanent
settlements.
In earliest settlements (similar to today) the

fountain was proudly displayed to illustrate the
power and civilization of a community.
Source of Potable Water

Four Principle Functions
In early civilization, the fountain had four

principle functions:
1. Supply drinking water for human

consumption
2. Supply water for animals
3. Used domestically for washing, cleaning,

and cooking
4. Used for display and as a

communication/gathering center.

Ancient Symbolism
Some of the earliest recorded water features

were found in the deserts of Egypt where the
waters were controlled and channeled for
irrigation purposes.
As evidenced in this tomb painting from 3000

B.C., the Egyptians planted gardens within the
walled enclosures surrounding their homes. A
central rectangular fish pond is flanked by rows
of fruit trees and ornamental plants.
Other irrigated gardens were developed around

the cultivation of food sources: mainly the
lotus and water lily.
In Mari (Mesopotamia) a stone fountain figure

dating around 2000 B.C. was discovered. This
figure — a female goddess holding a vase into
which water is piped and poured into a basin,
can be considered a prototype for the types of
fountains made in gardens for thousands of
years thereafter.

Persian/Islamic Design
A traditional Persian garden was comprised of

four essentials: water for irrigation, display and
sound; shade trees for shelter; flowers for
scent and color; and music to delight the
auditory senses.
The designs typically included four water

channels in the form of a cross, dividing the
garden into four quadrants. Usually a pool or
small hill with a pavilion was positioned at the
intersection of the channels.
When Muslim Arabs conquered Persia, Persian

designs were readily assimilated into Islamic
garden design, since they closely resembled
the description of the Koran’s Garden of
Paradise.

Moorish Design
Moorish designs valued water as a resource and

made the most of a small quantity of water by
channeling it carefully for use in irrigation
after its display function was met.
The best example of water restraint is the

bubble fountain in which basins were designed
to be continually overflowing into a secondary
channel where the water would then be
channeled into a secondary area for alternate
uses.
The basins, believed to be used as a cooling

method for interior courts, was often facetted
or carved in a lotus pattern and mounted close
to the ground, barely rising above the surface
of the surrounding plane.

Moorish Design, cont’d…
The Mugahals, in the 17th and 18th centuries, created similar gardens where flowers,
fruit trees, water, and shade were arranged in unified compositions.
The most notable examples are the Taj Mahal Gardens in Agra and the Shalimar
Gardens in Lahore.
The Mugahal gardens were developed with the expansion of the Arab Empire in
Northern India.
In areas with large amounts of water, the Mugahal designers were able to make use of
water in a way that would appear extravagant to the Arabs who inhabited less
generous climates.

Moorish Design, cont’d…
At Shalamar Baghin Kashmir, at the foot hills of

the Himalayas, the Persian tradition of severe
water restraint was broken.
They created complex gardens and used the

ample water source to create pools, streams,
and waterfalls.
It was here that they invented a form of a

waterfall called the “Chadar”, which was built
in such a way to maximize the play of sunlight
on the water and which was directed to a
specific focal point.
An Example of a Chadar Waterfall

Chinese/Japanese Designs
The water feature in China played two roles: as a landscape feature and to grow water
lilies and lotus. In landscape terms, the Chinese used water as we do today, capturing
its stillness and reflective quality or utilizing its turbulent nature for waterfalls and
fountains.
Japanese water gardening is all about creating a picture for contemplation, which
brings the landscape of the countryside into the garden in a stylized, reduced form.
Pools contain islands and rocky shorelines; cliffs are created with stark rocks that jut
from the water.
Running water plays an important role, not just in streams and waterfalls, but also
through bamboo pipes in an array of configurations to create curves and ripples.
In Beijing, China, the Imperial City contained similar elaborate gardens with masterly-
placed potted plants, trees, artificial lakes, bridges and pavilions.

Chinese/Japanese Designs, cont’d…
The gardens of the Orient have had considerable influence on European and North
American styles, although the view of what a garden should be, and the whole
philosophy of gardens and gardening is completely different.
The Japanese and Chinese choose to reflect the natural effect with which water
appears. Their designs are created around the theology that the garden is a place of
solitude and contemplation, working with water rather than manipulating and
overcoming its natural presence.
The stone water basin or fountain has had a time-honored place in Japanese gardens
for centuries. Stone basin fountains or “chozubachi” (top picture, next slide)
originated in ancient shrines and temples for worshipers to wash their hands and rinse
their mouths before entering the shrine as an act of purification of the mind and body.
The fountains were usually 16" or taller in height.

Chinese/Japanese Designs, cont’d…
Tea masters later redesigned the fountain

bowls for Japanese tea gardens to 12" heights
or shorter to create the “tsukubai”, (bottom
image). The tsukubai or crouching bowl was
designed to humble guest and create the right
state of mind before guests joined the tea
ceremony.
Today, Japanese gardens have both the

chozubachi and tsukubai and are fed with Chozubachi
water from bamboo spouts called “kakei”.
The deer chaser or “shisiodoshi” was originally

developed by Japanese farmers to scare deer
and boar from crops, but was later used in the
gardens as an element of change. As water
flows from the bamboo fountain spout, the Shisiodoshi
knocking portion fills and spills the water,
creating a rhythmic knocking sound as it hits a
rock.
Tsukubai

Greek and Roman Influences
France, in the 17th century, replaced Italy as

the primary inspiration of architecture and
landscape design.
Rooted in Greek and Ancient Rome,

symmetrical arrangements were designed to
give an impression of limitless grandeur,
exemplified by the royal architecture of this
period. Grounds where intersected with radial
alleys, lined with trees or hedges, and
embellished with fountains, pavilions, and
statuary.
The development of the cascade or downward

falling fountains appears to have flourished in
the Renaissance gardens of Italy, particularly in
Rome, where the water supply was plentiful
and the local terrain allowed water to be
captured and piped into gravity-fed creations.

Greek and Roman Influences, cont’d…
Throughout the Roman Imperial period, the civic and cultural leaders of Corinth
dignified and decorated their city with public fountains and water displays,
systematically laminating new aesthetics and social values over carefully selected
themes from the past.
Architectural facades bearing the names of mortal benefactors shelter reminders of

ancient monuments and statues of ageless deities.
Stylized grottoes and flowing water offered domesticated nature as a break from
hectic city life.
In no other class of landmarks did Roman Corinth articulate her place in the world so
clearly and none enjoyed greater fame.

Trevi Fountain
Trevi fountain, representing affirmation of the

water cycle, is an excellent example of a
Roman display fountain, probably the world’s
best known.
A sculpted Oceanus, a mystical protector of the

sea and a godfather to the Greek Pantheon,
towers in the center, guarding the well or
spring of life. His outreached arms point to two
winged stallions (one is tame and placid, the
other of violent and uncontrolled power)
symbolizing the arrival of fresh water.
Water is abounding, like that of the earth, and

collects in a basin from which jets shoot water
into the air simulating the completion of the
cycle.
Trevi Fountain

Trevi Fountain, cont’d…
Carved reliefs above Oceanus’s left shoulder depict the legend of the Virgin water.
According to the Legend of Trivia, a virgin spirit named Trivia lead a band of soldiers in
19 B.C. to the source of a secret spring near Salome, a town east of Rome. The waters
were believed to have magical powers to rejuvenate youth.
The master builder of the times, Marcus Agrippi, ordered the construction of the
aqueduct, known as the Aqua Virgo, (Latin for Virgin Water). The aqueduct was
eventually hooked up to more than 2,500 taps in Rome. Many drinking fountains were
placed in a central plaza close to the government buildings to facilitate people’s good
health and fulfillment of their civic duties. The architectural element is tied to the
symbolic references of good mind and moral spirit.
The Roman empire spread the engineering skills of the Romans across Europe and
Roman aqueducts can still be seen in the south of France and Segovia in Spain. At the
time of the first Gothic sacking of Rome in 410 A.D., eleven aqueducts were feeding
1,212 public fountains, 11 great imperial thermae, and 926 public baths. Much of the
modern water supply of Rome is based on these water engineering feats.

Other Famous Fountains
Following the completion of the formal gardens

at Versailles (1668), the cascade-style water
feature and the French Classical garden
became popular throughout Europe.
The Palazzo Reale, Caserta, near Naples is the

most extreme example of the formal cascade,
it is nearly 1.9 miles (3 km) long.
Versailles
Manneken Pis Brussels is a well-known

sculpture (made by Jerome Duquesnoy in
1618), of a little boy emitting an arching jet
stream. According to 14th-century lore, the
lad extinguished a fire and thereby saved the
city from destruction. This fountain has been
hidden, stolen, captured, and during local
festivals, clothed and honored, with wine and
beer replacing the water.
Manneken Pis Brussels

The Emperor Fountain at Chatsworth
Interest in classical antiquity came to England,

influenced by France. The enclosed medieval
garden was eventually replaced by the
Renaissance pleasure garden which was very
much a formal garden, although the term
“formal” was not adopted until the end of the
19th century.
The principles of these enormous features are

just as relevant when the concept is translated Cascades at Chatsworth
to a small suburban plot.
The gardens at Cascades at Chatsworth in

Derbyshire, have evolved since the 16th
century under the directions of the
descendants of Bess of Hardwick who had built
the original house and gardens.

The Emperor Fountain at Chatsworth, cont’d…
The Emperor Fountain at Chatsworth was built

for the first duke and finished in 1996,
however, it was rebuilt only five years later on
a grander scale.
Water flows over varying numbers and widths

of paving stones to create 24 groups of grand
cascades. Each group has it’s own unique sound
and aesthetic.
Another distinctive design of Chatsworth is the

cascade house and its watery forecourt Emperor Fountain at Chatsworth
containing a series of fountains and jets from
which the cascade is fed. Even the dome of the
house can be turned into a waterfall and the
interior is pierced with holes to soak the
surprised visitor.

Modern Water Features
Weather you have a fondness for formal,

traditional fountains, for stylized natural
stream and waterfalls, or for polished granite
spheres floating on low pressure jets, the
challenge for the water feature designer today
is to sift through all the data.
This involves such things as the client’s desires,

the existing site conditions, the connection of
the installation, architectural references,
operational requirements and so forth in order
to bring to light those elements that will make
your water feature both beautiful and
meaningful.

Modern Water Features, cont’d…
The largest impact to the modern design water

features is that of system integration and new
technological advances.
Many water features have evolved into

sophisticated water displays with sequencing
devices and LED RGB lighting.
Additional audio components and an enhanced

understanding of programmable water effects
has lead to the development of choreographed
water features, with their own unique
characteristics and personalities.

Water Feature Design Principles

Introduction
The intent here is to present an overview of the basics and fundamentals of design
theory as related to water features. These fundamentals are: context, line/form,
materials, textures, light/color, motion/movement, sound, wind and concealed
components.
To begin, water is both simple and complicated. The simplicity of a silent and
reflective lake or pool is undeniable; however, when water moves, complex
interactions and forces, displacements, and energies control its dynamics.
Two forces that modify the horizontal surface of water are:
• Adhesion (the attraction of water molecules and other materials) and

• Cohesion (the attraction of water molecules to one another).
The key to designing a successful and captivating water feature is to direct the way
water moves, without losing control of the water or ruining the aesthetic with poor
execution.

Design Guidelines – Traditional Pools
Traditional pools - water effect height to offset distance ration 1:1

Design Guidelines – Elevated Water Tables
Elevated water tables - water effect height to offset distance ration 1:1.5

Aesthetic Factors
A designer usually incorporates water into a space as a visual element.
The aesthetic qualities of water, however, reach far beyond the visual aspect due to
the documented psychological effects of water and as a physical factor providing sound
and climatic modification.
The sound of water and the coolness associated with being near or touching water are
equally part of our emotional response to water in our environment.

Visual Impact
Water can function as a focal point within a

space or as a means of creating and
maintaining a sense of continuity.
A water display can strongly temper the

character of a space. A sense of calm and
serenity is created by a quiet stream or pool,
while excitement and drama can be achieved
by swiftly moving, densely massed, or strong
vertical displays.
The level of formality will be influenced by the

forms of the pools and displays, and the mood
further defined or reinforced by appropriate
lighting.

Context
Every water feature has elements of context

that must be considered during the design
process.
Contextual factors can be categorized as either

aesthetic or safety related.
Think about the surrounding architectural and

landscape forms: Is there an opportunity to
incorporate or use related design forms within
the water feature composition? Would it be
advantageous to consider using the same or
similar materials, finishes, or textures for this
water feature? If lighting is to be incorporated,
consider the existing or proposed ambient light
sources. A good water lighting scheme may end
up being overwhelmed by the surrounding
sources of ambient light.

Context, cont’d…
Psychological Impact
It is an essential aspect of human behavior to
be drawn toward a riverbank, lake edge, or
seashore. We either live near water or convey
it to where we live, using canals or pipelines.
Our food supply, likewise, depends upon water
for growth and sustenance.
Auditory Impact
The intensity and frequency of the sound
generated by a water display can be used to
convey a sense of calm or excitement, and can
also mask unpleasant or distracting ambient
noise.

Context, cont’d…
Sensory Impact
Airborne spray and evaporation from water
displays cause a cooling effect; droplets and
sprays from active, aerated displays are
particularly effective.
The Middle East fountains perfected this design

by creating small openings in the walls that
surrounded courtyards and garden enclosures.
Prevailing winds would be concentrated and

directed towards the fountains, which were
placed in line with the interior courtyards or
buildings.

Safety Context
Consideration of safety contextual factors

includes thinking about how the feature will be
utilized both during the day and in the evening.
Determine if there are safety issues that may
restrict or have serious implications on the
water feature design.
Interactive water features, in particular, have

unique spatial, water velocity, and water
treatment considerations. These considerations
may result in limitations on the type of water
effects, operational heights, and dynamics
designed into a feature. Also, consider if there
are any splash issues related to the areas
surrounding the feature. Adjacent plantings or
public walking areas may mean that splash will
not be tolerated due to liability concerns.

Line
Line is used to define a space as well as convey

distance, establish perspective, and express
emotion.
Line gives direction and movement to the eye

as it carries the eye along its route.
This eye movement prompts emotional and

psychological responses. For example, vertical
lines can be perceived as severe and emphatic
while horizontal lines can be perceived as
pleasant and satisfying.

Form
Since water is a liquid with no apparent shape

unto itself, its form is determined by the
characteristics and qualities of its
container/context. As a result, the same
volume of water can have an infinite number of
characteristics depending on such factors as
the play of light, materials, textures, color and
motion.
Form has a mass and volume within a space and

has degrees of symmetry and irregularity. The
more striking, unusual or contrasting a form is
from its surroundings, the stronger the visual
attraction.

Form, cont’d…
As with all design, consider form and line as it relates to the design of any water
feature. Also, think about adding decorative line to supporting elements and material
details within the water feature. For instance, decorative grates are a creative way to
reflect surrounding design elements and can enhance the viewer’s experience.

Materials
Materials and their accompanying textures help to enrich the visual quality of a water
feature.
Texture comes from the size and shape of the surface material that the water runs
over.
Textural qualities can be identified as light or heavy, thin or dense, rough or smooth.
Smooth textures can be pleasant to touch, highly reflective, and complimentary to
surrounding forms.
Selecting the correct water feature materials can go a long way to conveying the right
aesthetic for a particular space.
A variety of materials can be applied to water feature designs including glass, stainless
steel, and stone.

Materials - Glass
The transparency, translucency, and

reflectivity of glass make it a rather unique
material to use in a water feature. These
characteristics can result in some spectacular
outcomes and effects.
Glass provides design versatility. It can be

utilized as castings or panels in a variety of
design options: frosted or textured,
transparent or translucent, clear crystalline or
colored.
Textures can be added internally or externally

and with the addition of light, these effects
can be further enhanced.

Materials – Glass, cont’d…
Water is expressed differently depending on the type of glass and lighting that is
utilized. Textured glass can help aerate and enhance the water flow over it. Water
that flows over a smooth glass texture can be almost undetectable, depending on the
lighting conditions.
Textured Glass Can Enhance Water Flow Water Flowing Over Smooth Glass is Barely Discernible

Materials - Stainless Steel
Because of its corrosion and oxidation

resistance, strength, and reflective properties,
stainless steel is often the metal of choice to
use in commercial water features.
It is important to carefully select the

appropriate grade for particular applications as
corrosion can result under certain conditions.
Stainless steel can be effectively used in

waterwall features and offers versatility as
both a practical and decorative element for a
variety of water displays.
As a practical element, stainless steel panels

can help to hide undesirable mechanical
components. It can also be sculpted and used
as a decorative element.

Materials - Stone
Natural stone has long been used in water

features. There are many colors, textures and
forms of stone that can be utilized, depending
on the design style. Naturalistic designs may
use less refined forms of stone while
contemporary designs may incorporate a more
refined stone finish with high reflectivity, such
as dark river-washed stones.
A stone’s porosity can also be a significant

consideration especially when designing water
walls.
A porous stone may actually allow water to

migrate along surrounding walls and run into
places where water is not intended to be.

Materials – Stone, cont’d…
The lack of uniformity with stone may also be considered its greatest asset. A variety
of textures allow for a range of water effects, from the aerated effects created when
using split-faced stone within cascades, to the smooth and calming effects created
with laminar flows over smooth-finished stones.

Color
Pure water is colorless and thus relies on its

surroundings/context to transfer color.
Light and color have strong influences on the

resultant mood that a water feature conveys.
Colors can soothe and evoke a sense of

calmness or they can arouse and promote a
sense of thrill and drama.
There are two primary sources of color that

should be considered when designing a water
feature: 1) color that originates from the
finished material pigments, and 2) color that is
derived from lighting effects.

Color - Material
Various colored materials can have different

impacts on a water feature’s overall character.
Darker colored materials tend to showcase and

enhance both active and inactive water
effects. For instance, aerated water and the
associated shimmering effects stands out more
when run over darker surfaces.
Inactive water, such as that of a reflecting

pool, is most reflective over darker pool
finishes.

Color - Lighting Effects
Lighting can have a very dramatic effect on

almost any water feature.
Evening viewing for both interior and exterior

applications is dependant upon effective
lighting techniques.
White, submersible, incandescent halogen

lighting is particularly effective at evoking an
elegant character. Alternatively, color-
changing, submersible LED lighting can project
a very dramatic and eye-catching show.
The position of light sources (in front, behind,

within, and externally) also has an impact on
the water’s visual character and overall
aesthetic.

Motion - Static
Water can be classified into two general

categories according to its motion: static (still)
or dynamic (moving).
Static water can be found in pools, ponds, and

gently flowing channels and streams.
Deemed visually placid, static water expresses

a balance and equilibrium with the force of
gravity.
Consider the visual power of a static water

display, especially when juxtaposed within a
dynamic environment such as an urban core.

Motion - Dynamic
Energetic and emotionally stimulating, dynamic

water is derived from moving, flowing, or
falling water techniques.
It easily captures the attention of the eye and

is often used as a focal point within a designed
space.
Water movement can be influenced by the

steepness of the slope, the introduction of
obstructions, the depth and width of the pool
or channel, and prevailing material textures.
Highly textured surfaces can slow water flow

and increase turbulence.

Motion - Dynamic, cont’d…
Because of its fluid state, a given volume of

water expands outward until it is stopped and
contained; hence, the characteristics of water
flow are a result of the container it is in. For
instance, the same volume of water can be
rather placid in a wide container, but be quite
turbulent when funneled through a narrower
channel because of the increased resistance.
Higher rates of movement are related to

increased visual and sound characteristics.

Sound
A major characteristic of water is the ability to

emit sound when it is in motion or strikes a
surface.
Depending on the amount of movement and

volume of water involved, numerous sounds
can be produced that complement and enhance
the spatial experience.
The sounds of water can be manipulated to

produce trickles, dribbles, bubbles, gurgles,
roars, gushes, and splashes.
Attention to the audible aspects of water is

very important; too little can be irritating (i.e.
a dripping faucet); too much, especially in
confined spaces, can be considered
overpowering.

Sound, cont’d…
The neutralizing characteristics of water sound can also be a significant tool. For
example, creating “white noise” can effectively temper external noise pollution.
Conversely, the absence or near absence of water sounds can also be perceived as a
source of emotional tranquility, as with a reflecting pool or a laminar water flow.

Wind
Wind can have a major impact on the character of water and water effects. As an
aesthetic element, the interplay of wind and a water surface can create interesting
variations within the same water feature.
Prevailing winds should be considered when designing any exterior water feature. For
instance, if a traditional water fountain pool is being located between two buildings
where a wind tunnel effect is likely present, consider limiting the maximum height of
the water jets to a value less than 1:1 (i.e., the maximum height of the vertical water
jet is set to less than the distance it is from the pool wall).
Wind sensors can also be used to regulate jet heights automatically.
The splash that can result from sweeping winds can be especially problematic in public
spaces where public safety is very critical. Additionally, in desert environments, sand,
moved by wind into a water feature, may have certain unfavorable mechanical
implications.

Concealed Components
The success of any water feature design is not

only dependent upon implementation of basic
design principals, it also hinges upon how the
execution is carried out.
In other words, has the detailed design of the

various mechanical and electrical components
incorporated low-impact solutions?
The various techniques that can help to

minimize the impact of these components will
be discussed in the following slides.

Suspended Paver Slabs
Mechanical and electrical components can be concealed with the use of suspended
paver slabs.
A pedestal system and/or stainless steel framework which allows water to flow
between each paver, typically supports these slabs. Penetrations are made to allow
water jets and lights to be incorporated (lights are often hung off of the slabs). All
equipment can be serviced by simply removing the suspended pavers.

Types of Concealed Components
Decorative Drain Plates: Submerged Water Jets –

A deck level drain plate can be Sequencing Device:
fabricated to have decorative grille Incorporating water jets that can be
designs. submerged minimizes the impact of
hardware during non-active periods.

Types of Concealed Components, cont’d…
Niche/Recessed Light Fixtures: Whenever possible, ensure that light fixtures are
concealed with a recessed fixture or behind some sort of shroud.
Suspended FRP Grating: Similar to suspended paver slabs, suspended FRP grating is an
open grid of fiber-reinforced plastic from which lights can be hung and water jets can
penetrate (refer to left image). A river-washed stone is usually applied over the grating
to conceal all of the components below. Maintenance and wash-down is easily
performed with this type of system.
Decorative Diffusion Plates: A fountain pool that is clad with stone can also have the
diffusion/inlet plate constructed of the same material. This allows for the pool bottom
to be virtually uninterrupted (see examples below).
Suspended FRP Grating Examples of Decorative Diffusion Plates

Types of Water Features

Introduction
In nature, water moves through the

environment in an endless variety of ways.
In response, water feature manufacturers

offer a multitude of products with diverse
water movement techniques that are available
to designers.
In this section of the presentation, we will

introduce the characteristics of architectural
styles of water features.

Traditional Fountains and Geysers
A traditional water feature is one composed of a pool with a freeboard and one or
several water effects within. The size and shape of the fountain can vary
tremendously. Often used as a focal point, it can also be used to divide space or
interrupt a vista, encouraging the visitor to pause before moving on. Alternatively, a
single jet or geyser can be incorporated to offset and balance another garden or
architectural feature nearby. Whether using single or multiple patterned fountain
sprays, always consider combining it with light. Few features can compare with a pool
in which a fountain is illuminated at night. Also, contemplate the possibility of
incorporating programmed music.

Waterwalls
A waterwall combines an elevated water source

(usually a trough) with a level and consistent
overflow edge.
It is especially important that the leading edge

or lip of the overflow coping allows for even,
clean water movement.
A weir strip is often incorporated to allow for

leveling adjustments, as required.
A projected coping or weir cape usually

requires a drip channel be cut into its
underside to prevent the water from running
back under the weir coping.

Waterwalls, cont’d…
Recessed reglets or channels are typically

located at each end of the waterwall to
prevent water tracking over the adjacent
surfaces.
Waterwall materials can vary. Common

materials include stone, glass, and stainless
steel and can take many forms such as shingled
or shiplapped. Each material and material
configuration can create different effects from
clear stream flow to highly aerated flows.
Uplighting a waterwall feature can help to

create a far more dynamic and ever-changing
appearance.

Cascades
The look of water as it tumbles over a cascade or the patterns it creates as it sheets
over granite-faced steps can be very compelling. The stepped dimensions, finishes,
types of materials, and designed water flows used for a cascade all greatly influence
the final effect (center image illustrates the variations of cascade design). Consider
using non-traditional materials such as glass to create a truly unique cascade effect.
Spectacular results can be achieved by combining both internal and front uplighting on
a glass cascade water feature.

Waterfalls
Since contemporary waterfall features

generally consist of freefalling water flows, it’s
important to consider the volume of water that
is intended to flow over the top edge.
As with any vertical water feature, different

water flows can have dramatically varying
characteristics. Think about using different
types of freefall such as laminar flow (top
photo) and divided/compartmentalized flow
(bottom photo).
Varied heights can also have a significant

impact on the water effect and on the
potential splash issues that may result at the
bottom of a vertical feature.

Comb Weirs and Ejector Jets
When splash constraints and a more consistent flow control is desired, a comb weir or
ejector jet system may provide the solution. These two devices create individual
spouts through a weir or series of NEA nozzles placed on a supply manifold. These
effects require less water and are ideal when a reduced reservoir or water source is
required. The overall water effect will fall in a more controlled means and provides a
continuous broken sheet.

Spouts
Traditional spouts have been used to create large vertical drops with low volumes of
water. Usually complemented with an architectural facade or plaque, these effects
create a sense of source for large bodies of water. Large hedge row effects can be used
to suppress much of the splash of large elevation drops.

Water Curtains
Water curtains are a type of waterfall

consisting of individual strands or beads of
water that run down a series of laces of mylar
or stainless steel.
These water droplets can fall from great

heights in slow motion, quietly, and without
splash.
The laces can be installed up to 20 degrees

from vertical without compromising the effect
of the water curtain.

Schematic of a Water Curtain

Uphill Waterfalls
Technically, an uphill water display is not

considered a vertical water feature, although
the water appears to flow downwards. An
uphill water display is simply a row of closely
positioned aerating jets that are individually
valved and properly pressurized to shoot water
up a slanting base.
So spectators don’t actually see the jets finish

their trajectory, the water is collected at the
top at a mock weir, which consists of a cap
overhanging the spray and a shallow hidden
cavity for the water to fall into.
The most interesting aspect of this feature

results from deflected water that runs back
down the incline to create a near herringbone
effect in combination with the uphill flow.

Channels - Rills
Channels have long been used as devices to

harness the power and beauty of water. These
types of water features lead the eye in a given
direction and form a physical link between
separate areas of water. The two types of
channels are known as rills and canals.
Rills are narrow (maximum 12" wide) and act to

visually compress the water, creating a feeling
of tension between one larger area of water to
another.
Rills are most effective when they cover a

longer distance and have no vegetation nearby
competing for visual attention. Rill

Channels - Canals
Canals are similar to rills only on a larger scale

with greater width and length and, as a result,
aquatic plantings can be incorporated into the
design.
Considered a formal feature, a canal moves

substantial amounts of water from one larger
body of water to another and usually has a
highly reflective surface. Canal
Factors of channel design that affect the

velocity and turbulence of the stream are
presented on the next few slides.

Turbulent Stream/Channel Design
As the stream cross section decreases, the velocity of any

given volume will increase in direct proportion.
As the slope increases, the velocity of the stream increases As the stream changes direction, the
and the water depth decreases. outer edge water flow speeds up and
turbulence increases.

Turbulent Stream/Channel Design, cont’d…
A heavy texture on the bottom and/or As the stream encounters obstructions,

side of the channel, particularly in directional changes and increased
conjunction with high velocity, will velocity cause surface turbulence.
cause substantial turbulence.

Vanishing Edge/Reflecting Pools
The vanishing edge or infinity edge pool is an

ideal solution for contemporary applications.
With a clean and simple character, a vanishing

edge pool redirects the focus of the water
feature from the water container to the water
itself. Providing there are no other water
effects within the pool, the surface of a
vanishing edge pool is highly reflective and can
complement the surrounding environment.
Vanishing edge pools are used to creating a
sense of serenity or mystery.
Usually a vanishing edge pool takes the form of

an overflow weir with a laminar flow of clear
water streaming into a collection trough.

Elevated Water Tables
New trends in the architectural world have led to the development of a water feature
type called an “elevated water table”. Consisting of a water body that has been
elevated to or above the pool wall, this water feature gives the water more presence
and increases the overall site lines. It also provides a structure where mechanical and
electrical trenches can be built which will conceal the components, without
penetrating the slab. This is an excellent water feature type for existing developments
and renovations.

Schematic of an Elevated Water Table

Elevated Water Table With Zero Edge Pool
Much like an elevated water table in a

traditional pool, zero edge water tables allow
the viewers to interact with a water skin that
descends the vertical wall of the structure.
Special attention to detail is required for the

collection trough and surface treatment
throughout the area as water can be tracked
away from the pool. This too provides a
structure where mechanical and electrical
trenches can be built which will conceal the
components, with minimum penetration of the
slab.
It is an excellent water feature type for

existing developments and renovations.

Vortex Water Effect
The vortex is a natural occurring effect that

can be mimicked within a pool. It is created by
large volumes of water being pushed around a
funnel structure generated by the interior pool
surface. A large drain line is required.
The effect can be dramatically increased by

including a variable frequency drive where the
overall water volume can be controlled from a
small water skin to a large turning vortex that
can overcome the structural elements of the
water surface and effect the entire pool.
Additional effects that may increase the

aesthetic impact can include a large vertical
column within the “black hole” and LED lights
that can be programmed to turn in an
alternative direction of the swirling water.

Water Void Effect
An aesthetic that nominally appears within a

reflecting pool or water body is known as a
water void effect.
A distinctive shape appears within the water

surface as a structural void is slowly drained.
Numerous shapes and configurations can be

used to emphasize trends or iconic symbols in
the surrounding architecture.
The interior surface can match the pool

structure and should be uplit to provide
optimal effect during night-time viewing.
Multiple voids and LED lighting can create a

subtle sequence effect. This type of feature is
ideally suited for elevated site lines and
provides a unique viewing experience from
multiple angles.

Sequenced Solutions

Sequenced Solutions
Introduction
Adding sequencing devices to a fountain can

result in a very versatile and visually dynamic
design feature.
Water character can take the form of a highly

choreographed and elegant fountain that is
intended to complement the surrounding
architectural forms and hardscape.
It can also be designed to form the heart of a

children’s interactive feature with both
random and rhythmic bursts.
The basic considerations when incorporating

sequenced elements within a water feature will
be discussed in this next section.

Sequenced Solutions
Considerations
Operating Heights: Decide if the feature is to

be used strictly as a showpiece, as an
interactive piece, or as a dual-use element.
Always be mindful of safe operating heights
when designing interactive water features as
excessive water flows can lead to serious user
injuries.
Sequencing Speeds: Like music, water effects

can be choreographed to various speeds and
rhythms. The desired mood, style, and
character of a particular application will
dictate which speeds are appropriate.

Sequenced Solutions
Considerations, cont’d…
Music: Sequenced water effects can be further enhanced with the integration of music,
although the element of music usually adds considerable complexity and costs to a
choreographed water feature. Music added to a large exterior applications has the
additional challenge of having to consider time delays to ensure the water and sound
effects are synchronized.
Lighting: Adding lighting effects, especially color changing light effects, adds yet
another dimension to a water feature. Lighting is generally a crucial element for
commercial applications.
Quantity and Types of Water Jets: Many jet effects can be utilized to create a
sequenced solution. The right water effect positioned at the correct spacing and
overall configuration can enhance the types of sequencing that can be used. For
example, a circular configuration with a minimum quantity of jets allows for such
dynamic sequences as the “tilting plate”. Types of sequencing solutions include: the
sequencing device, the electric leaper, the fog column nozzle, and the burst jet.

Sequenced Solutions
Sequencing Devices
Sequencing devices can be activated at 0.1 second intervals to create unique water
patterns and sequences. Grouped together or used in circular patterns, the sequencing
device can also produce interference patterns, so water is falling back down to the
source as newly released water bursts through. Individual effects called “slugs”,
“balls”, “roman candles” and “popcorn” can be combined together with an audio
component to create a choreographed show.

Sequenced Solutions
Sequencing Devices, cont’d…
At right is an example of the data

of a sequencing nozzle that is
typically supplied by a fountain
manufacturer listing its function,
specifications, options, any special
notes, and performance.

Sequenced Solutions
Electrical Leaper
A leaper device can be activated at 0.1 second

intervals and is used to create dynamic
jumping and leaping water rod effects.
It is a unique product because once the water

is out of the projectile, it still follows the
parabolic curve of the normal operation.
Leaper jets may be used singularly or in groups,

in various layouts and cross-over patterns to
achieve exciting visual experiences.

Sequenced Solutions
Electrical Leaper, cont’d…

of an electrical leaper that is
specifications, any special notes,
and performance.

Sequenced Solutions
Fog Column Nozzle
Sequencing fog effects can add a dramatic

quality to a water feature display. Fog effects
create mystery and also provide a blanket
effect for other sequencing device to emerge
from.
Variations in both air and water pressure can

tailor the aesthetic from a low, wide bushy
effect to a tall fog column and is particularly
beautiful at night when illuminated.
Sensitive to wind and humidity, these effects

are best utilized in children’s interactive
features and large water bodies.
Each system requires a fresh water source and

a pneumatic system to drive the device.

Sequenced Solutions
Fog Column Nozzle, cont’d…

of a fog column nozzle that is
specifications, options, any special

Sequenced Solutions
Burst Jet
A burst jet creates a large vertical effect that is programmed to erupt to heights of 75
feet and can be captured in a pool approximately 25 feet wide (interior conditions
only). As a key focal point, it is designed to create a sense of scale and drives attention
to the space. If offers outstanding effects for multiple site lines and levels with open
atriums.

Sequenced Solutions
Burst Jet, cont’d…

of a burst jet that is typically
supplied by a fountain
specification, options, any special

Sequenced Solutions
LED Lights
LED lighting has altered our ideas about the

function of light and how it can be applied.
LED lighting is now used in a wide range of

applications around the world: illuminating the
exteriors of office buildings; the interiors of
retail stores and residences; providing
entertaining lighting effects for hospitality
venues; and supplying versatile, high-
performance lighting for television and stage
sets.
In water features, LED lighting solutions can be

used in stand-alone or choreographed
applications and are becoming increasingly
popular in commercial, residential, and
municipal installations.

Sequenced Solutions
LED Lights, cont’d…

of LED lights that is typically
supplied by a fountain
manufacturer listing the
specifications for a variety of LED
light models.

Sequenced Solutions
Dry Deck Interactive Water Features
Dry deck or dry plaza water features are

relatively new and have evolved out of the
development of sequencing devices. The entire
mechanical and electrical systems are
concealed below a deck structure.
A reservoir structure can be built below the

suspended deck system which can also collect
much of the water generated by the
sequencing nozzle effects.
Dry deck structures require a reservoir with a

minimum of 4000 gallons of water with a ½
turn-over rate for the entire water volume.
Best-practice design calls for a maximum of 20
feet per second or approximately 7 feet of
water height. Special attention to paver loads
and the support structure is required to create
a safe and easily accessible equipment pit.

Sequenced Solutions
Schematic of a Dry Deck Water Feature

Sequenced Solutions
Slab Hung Sequencing Device with Lights
When designing a dry deck interactive water

feature that incorporates a slab hung
sequencing device with lights, allow 10 feet for
an additional run-out area with secondary area
drains that will collect any water that is
tracked out of the pool area.
A poured, non-slip finished material should be

utilized for the run-out area.
Chase sequences and unique patterns can be

created using different lines and shapes.
Intersection of lines and shapes also allows for
alternate paths and interference patterns.

Sequenced Solutions
Slab Hung Sequencing Device with Lights, cont’d…

of a slab hung sequencing device
with lights that is typically supplied
by a fountain manufacturer listing
its function, specifications, and
options.

Sequenced Solutions
Application Test
Hydraulic testing is used to determine the

feasibility and design criteria for prototypical
effects and/or to fine tune such items as weir
configuration, splash containment, textured
water walls, or effect development.
Tests may be conducted by the designer to

determine a system design or verify a material
effect.
Generally, tests must be conducted at full

scale, since hydraulic factors such as surface
tension may be constant or vary in a non-linear
fashion. For most testing — a single spout, a
short length of weir (5 feet), or a small area of
water wall surface is adequate.

Sequenced Solutions
Application Test, cont’d…
The construction of the test assembly, the

variables to be evaluated, and the performance
criteria should be carefully specified prior to
testing in order that each item, such as weir
profiles, surface textures, water wall joints,
drip notches, pool depths, splash patterns, and
jet heights can be evaluated as fully as
possible.
Where appropriate, two or three variations of

each critical item should be tested.
Please remember the exam password FLOW. You will be required to enter it in order to
proceed with the online examination.

Summary

Summary
Important Points
In summary, we discussed:
• The history of fountains beginning with the four principle functions of the fountain
in early civilization through to modern day while describing the characteristics of
Persian, Moorish, Asian, and European design influences.
• Water feature design principles including context, form, line, materials, color/light,
motion, sound, wind, and concealed components
• The types and characteristics of the different types of water features including
traditional fountains, geysers, waterwalls, cascades, waterfalls, comb weirs, spouts,
water curtains, channels, vanishing edge/reflecting pools, elevated water tables,
and vertical water features.
• The factors to consider when incorporating sequenced solutions for traditional and
dry deck interactive water features such as operating heights, sequencing speeds,
music, lighting, quantity and types of water jets.

Conclusion of This Program
If you desire AIA/CES, CSI and/or state licensing continuing

education credits, please click on the button below to
commence your online examination. Upon successful (80% or
better) completion of the exam, please print your Certificate
of Completion.
For additional knowledge and post-seminar assistance, please

visit the Ask an Expert forum (click on the link above and ©2007 Crystal Fountains. The material
contained in this course was researched,
bookmark it in your browser). assembled, and produced by Crystal
Fountains and remains their property.
Questions or concerns about this course
If you have colleagues that might benefit from this seminar, should be directed to the instructor.
please let them know. Feel free to revisit the AEC Daily web
site to download additional programs from the Online Learning
Center.
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available through a professional

©2007 Slide 1 of 102

Design Considerations of Water Features

Presented By: Simon Gardiner

©2007 • Table of Contents Slide 2 of 102

How to use this Online Learning Course

To receive a certificate indicating course completion, refer to the instructions at the

©2007 • Table of Contents Slide 3 of 102

Upon completing this course, you will be able to:

• State the design principles and considerations of water features required to

• Describe methods of minimizing the impact of mechanical and electrical components

©2007 • Table of Contents Slide 4 of 102

Water Feature Design Principles 26

Types of Water Features 58

Click on title to view

©2007 • Table of Contents Slide 5 of 102

©2007 • Table of Contents Slide 6 of 102

Originally, the word “Fountain” was used to

Potable water from a reliable source was one

In earliest settlements (similar to today) the

Source of Potable Water

©2007 • Table of Contents Slide 7 of 102

Four Principle Functions

In early civilization, the fountain had four

1. Supply drinking water for human

2. Supply water for animals

3. Used domestically for washing, cleaning,

4. Used for display and as a

©2007 • Table of Contents Slide 8 of 102

Some of the earliest recorded water features

As evidenced in this tomb painting from 3000

Other irrigated gardens were developed around

In Mari (Mesopotamia) a stone fountain figure

©2007 • Table of Contents Slide 9 of 102

A traditional Persian garden was comprised of

The designs typically included four water

When Muslim Arabs conquered Persia, Persian

©2007 • Table of Contents Slide 10 of 102

Moorish designs valued water as a resource and

The best example of water restraint is the

The basins, believed to be used as a cooling

©2007 • Table of Contents Slide 11 of 102

Moorish Design, cont’d…

©2007 • Table of Contents Slide 12 of 102

Moorish Design, cont’d…

At Shalamar Baghin Kashmir, at the foot hills of

They created complex gardens and used the

It was here that they invented a form of a

An Example of a Chadar Waterfall

©2007 • Table of Contents Slide 13 of 102

©2007 • Table of Contents Slide 14 of 102

Chinese/Japanese Designs, cont’d…

©2007 • Table of Contents Slide 15 of 102

Chinese/Japanese Designs, cont’d…

Tea masters later redesigned the fountain

Today, Japanese gardens have both the

The deer chaser or “shisiodoshi” was originally